Chemical and electrochemical oxidation or reduction of our recently reported Ir(IV,IV) mono-μ-oxo dimers results in the formation of fully characterized Ir(IV,V) and Ir(III,III) complexes. The Ir(IV,V) dimers are unprecedented and exhibit remarkable stability under ambient conditions. This stability and modest reduction potential of 0.99 V vs NHE is in part attributed to complete charge delocalization across both Ir centers. Trends in crystallographic bond lengths and angles shed light on the structural changes accompanying oxidation and reduction. The similarity of these mono-μ-oxo dimers to our Ir “blue solution” water-oxidation catalyst gives insight into potential reactive intermediates of this structurally elusive catalyst. Additionally, a highly reactive material, proposed to be a Ir(V,V) μ-oxo species, is formed on electrochemical oxidation of the Ir(IV,V) complex in organic solvents at 1.9 V vs NHE. Spectroelectrochemistry shows reversible conversion between the Ir(IV,V) and proposed Ir(V,V) species without any degradation, highlighting the exceptional oxidation resistance of the 2-(2-pyridinyl)-2-propanolate (pyalk) ligand and robustness of these dimers. The Ir(III,III), Ir(IV,IV) and Ir(IV,V) redox states have been computationally studied both with DFT and multiconfigurational calculations. The calculations support the stability of these complexes and provide further insight into their electronic structures.

AbstractWe have prepared and fully characterized two isomers of [IrIV(dpyp)2] (dpyp=meso-2,4-di(2-pyridinyl)-2,4-pentanediolate). These complexes can cleanly oxidize to [IrV(dpyp)2]+, which to our knowledge represent the first mononuclear coordination complexes of IrV in an N,O-donor environment. One isomer has been fully characterized in the IrV state, including by X-ray crystallography, XPS, and DFT calculations, all of which confirm metal-centered oxidation. The unprecedented stability of these IrV complexes is ascribed to the exceptional donor strength of the ligands, their resistance to oxidative degradation, and the presence of four highly donor alkoxide groups in a plane, which breaks the degeneracy of the d-orbitals and favors oxidation.

AbstractWe have prepared and fully characterized two isomers of [IrIV(dpyp)2] (dpyp=meso-2,4-di(2-pyridinyl)-2,4-pentanediolate). These complexes can cleanly oxidize to [IrV(dpyp)2]+, which to our knowledge represent the first mononuclear coordination complexes of IrV in an N,O-donor environment. One isomer has been fully characterized in the IrV state, including by X-ray crystallography, XPS, and DFT calculations, all of which confirm metal-centered oxidation. The unprecedented stability of these IrV complexes is ascribed to the exceptional donor strength of the ligands, their resistance to oxidative degradation, and the presence of four highly donor alkoxide groups in a plane, which breaks the degeneracy of the d-orbitals and favors oxidation.

AbstractMain-group complexes are shown to be viable electrocatalysts for the H2-evolution reaction (HER) from acid. A series of antimony porphyrins with varying axial ligands were synthesized for electrocatalysis applications. The proton-reduction catalytic properties of TPSb(OH)2 (TP=5,10,15,20-tetra(p-tolyl)porphyrin) with two axial hydroxy ligands were studied in detail, demonstrating catalytic H2 production. Experiments, in conjunction with quantum chemistry calculations, show that the catalytic cycle is driven via the redox activity of both the porphyrin ligand and the Sb center. This study brings insight into main group catalysis and the role of redox-active ligands during catalysis.

AbstractMain-group complexes are shown to be viable electrocatalysts for the H2-evolution reaction (HER) from acid. A series of antimony porphyrins with varying axial ligands were synthesized for electrocatalysis applications. The proton-reduction catalytic properties of TPSb(OH)2 (TP=5,10,15,20-tetra(p-tolyl)porphyrin) with two axial hydroxy ligands were studied in detail, demonstrating catalytic H2 production. Experiments, in conjunction with quantum chemistry calculations, show that the catalytic cycle is driven via the redox activity of both the porphyrin ligand and the Sb center. This study brings insight into main group catalysis and the role of redox-active ligands during catalysis.

Surface anchoring groups are needed to attach molecular units to photoanodes for photocatalytic water oxidation. The anchoring group must be hydrolytically stable and oxidation resistant under a variety of pH conditions. They must sometimes be electrically conducting for efficient light-induced electron injection from a photosensitizer to a metal oxide, but other times not conducting for accumulation of oxidizing equivalents on a water-oxidation catalyst. Commonly used anchors such as carboxylic acids and phosphonic acids have limited stability in aqueous environments, leading to surface hydrolysis and loss of catalytic function. More hydrolytically stable anchors, such as silatranes and hydroxamic acids, which are oxidation resistant and stable under acidic, neutral, and basic conditions, are more suitable for photoanode applications. Hydroxamic acids can be incorporated into dye molecules to give high electron injection efficiency due to their electrical conductivity and strong electronic coupling to the metal oxide surface. In contrast, silatranes, once bound as siloxanes, have diminished electronic coupling making them useful as catalyst anchors.

We have prepared and characterized a series of novel polydentate N,O-donor ligands derived from our well-studied ligand 2-(2-pyridinyl)-2-propanol (pyalkH), having the general formula Me{C(OH)(2-py)CH2}nH, where n = 2 or 3. Like pyalkH, these analogues bind via N and O with deprotonation at the latter, thus extending the strongly donor pyridine-alkoxide chelation power of pyalkH to polydentate forms. The greater denticity allows for more effective binding and polynuclear cluster formation with first-row transition metals. Several stable alkoxo-bridged polynuclear clusters of these ligands with Mn, Cu, Co and Ni have been prepared; all reported ligands and complexes have been characterized, including by X-ray crystallography. We report a one-step synthesis of these ligands, alongside pyalkH, on a multi-gram scale from inexpensive starting materials. We have also developed a new scalable procedure for the isolation of pyalkH that avoids the need for chromatography, making large-scale production of this ligand commercially viable.

•Novel Ir4-polyhydride cluster containing 8 NHC ligands.•Characterization by DFT and single crystal Neutron Diffraction.•Neutron data confirm DFT placement of hydride ligands.The hydride positions not being located in our prior X-ray single crystal studies of [Ir6(IMe)8(CO)2H14]2+, [Ir4(IMe)7(CO)H10]2+ and [Ir4(IMe)8H9]3+ (IMe = 1,3-dimethylimidazol-2-ylidene) a computational approach was adopted. Our computational positional assignments have now been tested by a single crystal neutron diffraction study of the closely related [Ir4(IMe)8H10]2+ cluster. The prior theoretical and subsequent experimental positions are in close agreement, validating the computational method, at least in this case.We report the full characterization of [Ir4(IMe)8H10]2+ (IMe = 1,3-dimethylimidazol-2-ylidene) formed from our Ir(IMe)2 precatalyst during glycerol dehydrogenation. This cluster is unusual in its high number of NHC ligands. We used both DFT and neutron diffraction to locate the hydrides, and the methods give good agreement, validating the computational approach.Download high-res image (79KB)Download full-size image

We previously reported a dimeric IrIV-oxo species as the active water oxidation catalyst formed from a Cp*Ir(pyalc)Cl {pyalc = 2-(2′-pyridyl)-2-propanoate} precursor, where the Cp* is lost to oxidative degradation during catalyst activation; this system can also oxidize unactivated CH bonds. We now show that the same Cp*Ir(pyalc)Cl precursor leads to two distinct active catalysts for CH oxidation. In the presence of external CH substrate, the Cp* remains ligated to the Ir center during catalysis; the active species—likely a high-valent Cp*Ir(pyalc) species—will oxidize the substrate instead of its own Cp*. If there is no external CH substrate in the reaction mixture, the Cp* will be oxidized and lost, and the active species is then an iridium-μ-oxo dimer. Additionally, the recently reported Ir(CO)2(pyalc) water oxidation precatalyst is now found to be an efficient, stereoretentive CH oxidation precursor. We compare the reactivity of Ir(CO)2(pyalc) and Cp*Ir(pyalc)Cl precursors and show that both can lose their placeholder ligands, CO or Cp*, to form substantially similar dimeric IrIV-oxo catalyst resting states. The more efficient activation of the bis-carbonyl precursor makes it less inhibited by obligatory byproducts formed from Cp* degradation, and therefore the dicarbonyl is our preferred precatalyst for oxidation catalysis.

Dihydrogen complexation with retention of the H–H bond, once an exotic concept, has by now appeared in a very wide range of contexts. Three structural types are currently recognized: Kubas dihydrogen, stretched dihydrogen, and compressed dihydrides. These can be difficult to distinguish, hence the development of a number of novel spectroscopic methods for doing so, mainly based on NMR spectroscopy. Three important reactivity patterns are identified: proton loss, oxidative addition, and dissociation, each of which often contributes to larger reaction schemes, as in homogeneous hydroformylation. Main group examples are beginning to appear, although here it is mainly by computational studies that the relevant structures can be identified. Enzymes such as the hydrogenases and nitrogenases are also proposed to involve these structures.

A pentamethylcyclopentadienyl (Cp*) iridium water-oxidation precatalyst was modified to include a silatrane functional group for covalent attachment to metal oxide semiconductor surfaces. The heterogenized catalyst was found to perform electrochemically driven water oxidation at an overpotential of 462 mV with a turnover number of 304 and turnover frequency of 0.035 s–1 in a 0.1 M KNO3 electrolyte at pH 5.8. Computational modeling of the experimental IR spectra suggests that the catalyst retains its Cp* group during the first hour of catalysis and likely remains monomeric.Keywords: alternative energy; electrocatalysis; iridium; metal oxide; silatrane; surface binding; water oxidation

Hydroxamate binding modes and protonation states have yet to be conclusively determined. Molecular titanium(IV) phenylhydroxamate complexes were synthesized as structural and spectroscopic models, and compared to functionalized TiO2 nanoparticles. In a combined experimental–theoretical study, we find that the predominant binding form is monodeprotonated, with evidence for the chelate mode.

This paper introduces IrI(CO)2(pyalc) (pyalc = (2-pyridyl)-2-propanoate) as an atom-efficient precursor for Ir-based homogeneous oxidation catalysis. This compound was chosen to simplify analysis of the water oxidation catalyst species formed by the previously reported Cp*IrIII(pyalc)OH water oxidation precatalyst. Here, we present a comparative study on the chemical and catalytic properties of these two precursors. Previous studies show that oxidative activation of Cp*Ir-based precursors with NaIO4 results in formation of a blue IrIV species. This activation is concomitant with the loss of the placeholder Cp* ligand which oxidatively degrades to form acetic acid, iodate, and other obligatory byproducts. The activation process requires substantial amounts of primary oxidant, and the degradation products complicate analysis of the resulting IrIV species. The species formed from oxidation of the Ir(CO)2(pyalc) precursor, on the other hand, lacks these degradation products (the CO ligands are easily lost upon oxidation) which allows for more detailed examination of the resulting Ir(pyalc) active species both catalytically and spectroscopically, although complete structural analysis is still elusive. Once Ir(CO)2(pyalc) is activated, the system requires acetic acid or acetate to prevent the formation of nanoparticles. Investigation of the activated bis-carbonyl complex also suggests several Ir(pyalc) isomers may exist in solution. By 1H NMR, activated Ir(CO)2(pyalc) has fewer isomers than activated Cp*Ir complexes, allowing for advanced characterization. Future research in this direction is expected to contribute to a better structural understanding of the active species. A diol crystallization agent was needed for the structure determination of 3.

Recent advances in the title topic are discussed in relation to sustainable distributed production of nitrogen fertilizer by electrolysis of air.Keywords: Ammonia oxidation; Chatt cycle; Hydrogen storage; Nitrogen fixation; Solar energy

A pentamethylcyclopentadienyl–iridium complex containing a tricyclic, dianionic, tridentate, scorpionate (facial binding), mixed organic–inorganic ligand was synthesized and characterized by single-crystal X-ray crystallography, as well as polynuclear NMR, UV–vis, and IR spectroscopies. The central cycle of the tridentate ligand consists of a modified boroxine in which two of the boron centers are tetrahedral, anionic borates. The complex is stable to hydrolysis in aqueous solution for >9 weeks at 25 °C but reacts with a 50 mM solution of sodium periodate within 12 s to form a periodate-driven oxygen evolution catalyst that has a turnover frquency of >15 s–1. However, the catalyst is almost completely deactivated within 5 min, achieving an average turnover number of ca. 2500 molecules of oxygen per atom of iridium. Nanoparticles were not observed on this time scale but did form within 4 h of catalyst activation under these experimental conditions. The parent complex was modeled using density functional theory, which accurately reflected the geometry of the complex and indicated significant interaction of iridium- and boracycle-centered orbitals.

Interfacial electron transfer dynamics of a series of photosensitizers bound to TiO2via linkers of varying conjugation strength are explored by spectroscopic and computational techniques. Injection and recombination depend on the extent of conjugation in the linker, where the LUMO delocalization determines the injection dynamics but both the HOMO and HOMO−1 are involved in recombination.

We report CF3-substituted porphyrins and evaluate their use as photosensitizers in water-splitting dye-sensitized photoelectrochemical cells (WS-DSPECs) by characterizing interfacial electron transfer on metal oxide surfaces. By using (CF3)2C6H3 instead of C6F5 substituents at the meso positions, we obtain the desired high potentials while avoiding the sensitivity of C6F5 substituents to nucleophilic substitution, a process that limits the types of synthetic reactions that can be used. Both the number of CF3 groups and the central metal tune the ground and excited-state potentials. A pair of porphyrins bearing carboxylic acids as anchoring groups were deposited on SnO2 and TiO2 surfaces, and the interfacial charge-injection and charge-recombination kinetics were characterized by using a combination of computational modeling, terahertz measurements, and transient absorption spectroscopy. We find that both free-base and metalated porphyrins inject into SnO2 and that recombination is slower for the latter case. These findings demonstrate that (CF3)2C6H3-substituted porphyrins are promising photosensitizers for use in WS-DSPECs.

Trialkylstannanes are good leaving groups that have been used for the formation of carbon–metal bonds to electrode surfaces for analyses of single-molecule conductivity. Here, we report the multistep synthesis of two amide-containing compounds that are of interest in studies of molecular rectifiers. Each molecule has two trimethylstannyl units, one linked by a methylene and the other by an ethylene group. To account for the very different reactivities of the parent halides, a new methodology for one-step trimethylstannylation was developed and optimized.

We describe facial and meridional isomers of [RhIII(pyalk)3], as well as meridional [RhIV(pyalk)3]+ {pyalk =2-(2-pyridyl)-2-propanoate}, the first coordination complex in an N,O-donor environment to show a clean, reversible RhIII/IV redox couple and to have a stable Rh(IV) form, which we characterize by EPR and UV–visible spectroscopy as well as X-ray crystallography. The unprecedented stability of the Rh(IV) species is ascribed to the exceptional donor strength of the ligands, their oxidation resistance, and the meridional coordination geometry.

The preparation of the facial and meridional isomers of [Ir(pyalk)3] (pyalk = 2-(2-pyridyl)isopropanoate), as model complexes for a powerful water oxidation catalyst, is reported. The strongly donating N3O3 ligand set is very oxidation-resistant, yet promotes facile metal-centered oxidation to form stable Ir(IV) compounds. The IrIII/IV reduction potentials of the two isomers differ by 340 mV despite the identical ligand set. A ligand field rationalization is advanced and supported by DFT calculations.

Sorbitol and xylitol obtained from biomass are considered promising potential sources of both carbon building blocks and energy. We report the efficient and selective conversion of sorbitol, xylitol and other polyols into lactic acid as the major product through homogeneous iridium-NHC catalyzed dehydrogenative processes. The proposed reaction mechanism involves base-driven hydrolysis of simple sugars which accounts for the catalyst selectivity observed. In addition, catalyst deactivation pathways are explored and rational catalyst optimization is attempted through fine tuning of the complex.

A family of iron complexes of PNP pincer ligands are active catalysts for the conversion of glycerol to lactic acid with high activity and selectivity. These complexes also catalyse transfer hydrogenation reactions using glycerol as the hydrogen source.

A series of homogeneous iridium bis(N-heterocyclic carbene) catalysts are active for three transformations involving dehydrogenative methanol activation: acceptorless dehydrogenation, transfer hydrogenation, and amine monoalkylation. The acceptorless dehydrogenation reaction requires base, yielding formate and carbonate, as well as 2–3 equivalents of H2. Of the few homogeneous systems known for this reaction, our catalysts tolerate air and employ simple ligands. Transfer hydrogenation of ketones and imines from methanol is also possible. Finally, N-monomethylation of anilines occurs through a “borrowing hydrogen” reaction. Notably, this reaction is highly selective for the monomethylated product.

We report a systematic computational search of molecular frameworks for intrinsic rectification of electron transport. The screening of molecular rectifiers includes 52 molecules and conformers spanning over 9 series of structural motifs. N-Phenylbenzamide is found to be a promising framework with both suitable conductance and rectification properties. A targeted screening performed on 30 additional derivatives and conformers of N-phenylbenzamide yielded enhanced rectification based on asymmetric functionalization. We demonstrate that electron-donating substituent groups that maintain an asymmetric distribution of charge in the dominant transport channel (e.g., HOMO) enhance rectification by raising the channel closer to the Fermi level. These findings are particularly valuable for the design of molecular assemblies that could ensure directionality of electron transport in a wide range of applications, from molecular electronics to catalytic reactions.

Organometallic Ir precatalysts have been found to yield homogeneous Ir-based water-oxidation catalysts (WOCs) with very high activity. The Cp*Ir catalyst series can operate under a variety of regimes: it can either act as a homogeneous or a heterogeneous catalyst; it can be driven by chemical, photochemical, or electrochemical methods; and the molecular catalyst can either act in solution or supported as a molecular unit on a variety of solid oxides. In addition to optimizing the various reaction conditions, work has continued to elucidate the catalyst activation mechanism and identify water-oxidation intermediates. This Perspective will describe the development of the Cp*Ir series, their many forms as WOCs, and their ongoing characterization.

A short, convenient, and scalable protocol for the one-pot synthesis of a series of fluorescent 7,8-dihalo-2,3-diaminophenazines is introduced. The synthetic route is based on the oxidative condensation of 4,5-dihalo-1,2-diaminobenzenes in aqueous conditions. The resulting diaminophenazines could be attractive intermediates for the preparation of polyfunctional phenazines and extended polyheteroacenes. We find that the undesired hydroxylation byproducts, typically obtained in aqueous conditions, are completely suppressed by addition of a stoichiometric amount of acetone during the oxidation step allowing for selective formation of 7,8-dihalo-2,2-dimethyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]phenazine derivatives with good to excellent yields. Under reductive conditions, the imidazolidine ring can be hydrolyzed into the desired 7,8-dihalo-2,3-diaminophenazines. Furthermore, we report a selective route under highly reducing conditions to monohydrodeaminate the 2,3-di(methylamino) phenazine derivatives, which allows for further structural variations of these phenazine building blocks. All of these derivatives are luminescent, with measured fluorescence quantum-yields of up to 80% in ethanol for the more rigid structures, highlighting the potential of such materials to provide new fluorophores.

The activity of the two related complexes [Cp*Ir(IMe)2X]BF4 (X = Cl (1), H (2)) in transfer hydrogenation from isopropyl alcohol to acetophenone was investigated. The results suggest that the commonly accepted monohydride mechanism for transfer hydrogenation mediated by cyclopentadienyl iridium species does not apply to chloride 1. We have found evidence that, although the two monodentate NHC ligands are retained in the coordination sphere, the Cp* ligand is completely released under mild conditions in a precatalytic activation step. Synthesis of modified versions of the initial precatalyst 1 with different cyclopentadienyl and NHC ligands demonstrated that increasing the steric pressure around the iridium center facilitates precatalyst activation and thus enhances the catalytic performance. Study of five new iridium(III) complexes bearing mono- or diphosphines helped us monitor Cp* ligand loss under mild conditions. An unusual P–C bond cleavage was also noted in a 1,2-bis(dimethylphosphino)methane (dmpm) ligand. On the basis of these findings, a novel catalyst activation mechanism is proposed for [(η5-C5R5)Ir] transfer hydrogenation based on the lability of the cyclopentadienyl ligand.Keywords: Cp*Ir complexes; cyclopentadienyl ligands; homogeneous catalysis; N-heterocyclic carbenes; steric pressure; transfer hydrogenation

Fourteen Cp*IrIII complexes, bearing various combinations of N- and C-spectator ligands, are assayed in hydrogen-transfer catalysis from isopropyl alcohol to acetophenone under various conditions to investigate ligand effects in this widely used reaction. The new cationic complexes bearing monodentate pyridine and N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands were characterized crystallographically and by variable-temperature nuclear magnetic resonance (VT-NMR). Control experiments and mercury poisoning tests showed that iridium(0) nanoparticles, although active in the reaction, are not responsible for the high activity observed for the most active precatalyst [Cp*Ir(IMe)2Cl]BF4 (6). For efficient catalysis, it was found necessary to have both NHCs in monodentate form; tying them together in a bis-NHC chelate ligand gave greatly reduced activity. The kinetics of the base-assisted reaction showed induction periods as well as deactivation processes, and H/D scrambling experiments cast some doubt on the classical monohydride mechanism.Keywords: Cp*Ir complexes; homogeneous catalysis; kinetics; monohydride mechanism; N-heterocyclic carbenes; transfer hydrogenation

An efficient synthetic protocol to functionalize the cyanoacrylic acid anchoring group of commercially available MK-2 dye with a highly water-stable hydroxamate anchoring group is described. Extensive characterization of this hydroxamate-modified dye (MK-2HA) reveals that the modification does not affect its favorable optoelectronic properties. Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) prepared with the MK-2HA dye attain improved efficiency (6.9%), relative to analogously prepared devices with commercial MK-2 and N719 dyes. The hydroxamate anchoring group also contributes to significantly increased water stability, with a decrease in the rate constant for dye desorption of MK-2HA relative to MK-2 in the presence of water by as much as 37.5%. In addition, the hydroxamate-anchored dye undergoes essentially no loss in DSSC efficiency and the external quantum efficiency improves when up to 20% water is purposefully added to the electrolyte. In contrast, devices prepared with the commercial dye suffer a 50% decline in efficiency under identical conditions, with a concomitant decrease in external quantum efficiency. Collectively, our results indicate that covalent functionalization of organic dyes with hydroxamate anchoring groups is a simple and efficient approach to improving the water stability of the dye–semiconductor interface and overall device durability.

An inexpensive protocol for the conversion of –C6H4R into –COOH groups using Co(II)–Oxone mixture as the catalytic system is described. A series of substrates containing substituted and non-substituted phenyl groups could be selectively converted into carboxylic acids. Initial mechanistic data have been provided.

Sodium borohydride and a series of related borohydrides catalyze a transition metal-free hydrosilylation of a variety of CO and CN functionalities under mild conditions. Importantly, many of these reactions are possible using the cheap and environmentally benign hydrosilane polymethylhydrosiloxane. A mechanism is proposed based on experimental and computational results.

We describe the synthesis and characterization of novel redox-active tridentate pincer ligands with pendant H-bonding sites. The corresponding Ni complexes exhibit complex redox behavior and are active precursors in hydrogen production electrocatalysis, a property potentially relevant to solar-to-fuel conversion. The electrochemistry of the corresponding Zn complexes was investigated to explore ligand participation in the observed redox chemistry.Ni complexes with pendant N atoms show ligand redox activity as well as electrocatalytic activity for proton reduction.

Odd-electron, redox-active ligands are discussed in the context of catalysis. We focus on ligand-based, non-singlet state intermediates and their participation in catalytic processes and related stoichiometric transformations.

In this tutorial review, we compare chemical oxidants for driving water-oxidation catalysts, focusing on the advantages and disadvantages of each oxidant.

We present evidence for Cp* being a sacrificial placeholder ligand in the [Cp*IrIII(chelate)X] series of homogeneous oxidation catalysts. UV–vis and 1H NMR profiles as well as MALDI-MS data show a rapid and irreversible loss of the Cp* ligand under reaction conditions, which likely proceeds through an intramolecular inner-sphere oxidation pathway reminiscent of the reductive in situ elimination of diolefin placeholder ligands in hydrogenation catalysis by [(diene)MI(L,L′)]+ (M = Rh and Ir) precursors. When oxidatively stable chelate ligands are bound to the iridium in addition to the Cp*, the oxidized precursors yield homogeneous solutions with a characteristic blue color that remain active in both water- and CH-oxidation catalysis without further induction period. Electrophoresis suggests the presence of well-defined Ir-cations, and TEM-EDX, XPS, 17O NMR, and resonance-Raman spectroscopy data are most consistent with the molecular identity of the blue species to be a bis-μ-oxo di-iridium(IV) coordination compound with two waters and one chelate ligand bound to each metal. DFT calculations give insight into the electronic structure of this catalyst resting state, and time-dependent simulations agree with the assignments of the experimental spectroscopic data. [(cod)IrI(chelate)] precursors bearing the same chelate ligands are shown to be equally effective precatalysts for both water- and CH-oxidations using NaIO4 as chemical oxidant.

Three different structural classes of NHC ligands can be distinguished: normal (nNHC), abnormal (aNHC), alternatively called mesoionic (MIC), and remote (rNHC). General principles, synthetic strategies as well as recent results in the area of transition metal complexes of aNHC/MICs and rNHCs are discussed. The special properties of aNHC/MICs are discussed including their somewhat debateable status as true carbenes in the full sense of the term, as contrasted with their close analogy with nNHCs in the bound state. Some applications to catalysis are included and future prospects outlined.Graphical abstractHighlights► The carbenoid status of the title carbenes in the free vs. bound state is discussed. ► aNHCs have a higher donor power and trans influence than nNHCs. ► aNHCs are finding increasing use in homogeneous catalysis.

We present the first analysis of performance of hydroxamate linkers as compared to carboxylate and phosphonate groups when anchoring ruthenium-polypyridyl dyes to TiO2 surfaces in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The study provides fundamental insight into structure/function relationships that are critical for cell performance. Our DSSCs have been produced by using newly synthesized dye molecules and characterized by combining measurements and simulations of experimental current density–voltage (J-V) characteristic curves. We show that the choice of anchoring group has a direct effect on the overall sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiency (η), with hydroxamate anchors showing the best performance. Solar cells based on the pyridyl-hydroxamate complex exhibit higher efficiency since they suppress electron transfer from the photoanode to the electrolyte and have superior photoinjection characteristics. These findings suggest that hydroxamate anchoring groups should be particularly valuable in DSSCs and photocatalytic applications based on molecular adsorbates covalently bound to semiconductor surfaces. In contrast, analogous acetylacetonate anchors might undergo decomposition under similar conditions suggesting limited potential in future applications.

Upon electrochemical oxidation of the precursor complexes [Cp*Ir(H2O)3]SO4 (1) or [(Cp*Ir)2(OH)3]OH (2) (Cp* = pentamethylcyclopentadienyl), a blue layer of amorphous iridium oxide containing a carbon admixture (BL) is deposited onto the anode. The solid-state, amorphous iridium oxide material that is formed from the molecular precursors is significantly more active for water-oxidation catalysis than crystalline IrO2 and functions as a remarkably robust catalyst, capable of catalyzing water oxidation without deactivation or significant corrosion for at least 70 h. Elemental analysis reveals that BL contains carbon that is derived from the Cp* ligand (∼ 3% by mass after prolonged electrolysis). Because the electrodeposition of precursors 1 or 2 gives a highly active catalyst material, and electrochemical oxidation of other iridium complexes seems not to result in immediate conversion to iridium oxide materials, we investigate here the nature of the deposited material. The steps leading to the formation of BL and its structure have been investigated by a combination of spectroscopic and theoretical methods. IR spectroscopy shows that the carbon content of BL, while containing some C–H bonds intact at short times, is composed primarily of components with C═O fragments at longer times. X-ray absorption and X-ray absorption fine structure show that, on average, the six ligands to iridium in BL are likely oxygen atoms, consistent with formation of iridium oxide under the oxidizing conditions. High-energy X-ray scattering (HEXS) and pair distribution function (PDF) analysis (obtained ex situ on powder samples) show that BL is largely free of the molecular precursors and is composed of small, <7 Å, iridium oxide domains. Density functional theory (DFT) modeling of the X-ray data suggests a limited set of final components in BL; ketomalonate has been chosen as a model fragment because it gives a good fit to the HEXS-PDF data and is a potential decomposition product of Cp*.

A thin layer of an amorphous, mixed-valence iridium oxide (electrodeposited from an organometallic precursor, [Cp*Ir(H2O)3]2+) is a heterogeneous catalyst among the most active and stable currently available for electrochemical water oxidation. We show that buffers can improve the oxygen-evolution activity of such thin-layer catalysts near neutral pH, but that buffer identity and concentration, as well as the solution pH, remain key determinants of long-term electrocatalyst activity and stability; for example, phosphate buffer can reduce the overpotential by up to 173 mV.

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A tridentate NNN NiII complex, shown to be an electrocatalyst for aqueous H2 production at low overpotentials, is studied by using temperature-dependent paramagnetic 1H NMR. The NMR T1 relaxation rates, temperature dependence of the chemical shifts, and dc SQUID magnetic susceptibility are correlated to DFT chemical shifts and compared with the properties of a diamagnetic Zn analogue complex. The resulting characterization provides an unambiguous assignment of the six proton environments in the meridionally coordinating tridentate NNN ligand. The demonstrated NMR/DFT methodology should be valuable in the search for appropriate ligands to optimize the reactivity of 3d metal complexes bound to attract increasing attention in catalytic applications.

In the title catalysts, the substrate, typically a ketone, imine or N-heterocycle, remains in the outer sphere (OS). The catalyst transfers hydride and a proton to the unbound substrate either by a concerted or by a stepwise path. These include catalysts not always considered together, such as Bullock's ionic hydrogenation catalysts, bifunctional catalysts in the tradition of Shvo and Noyori and Stephan's frustrated Lewis pair catalysts. By omitting the oxidative addition, insertion and reductive elimination pathways of conventional inner sphere (IS) catalysts, these OS pathways are in principle equally open to inexpensive metals and even nonmetal catalysts. These OS pathways lead to useful selectivity properties, particularly Noyori's asymmetric catalysis, but much more remains to be done in this rapidly developing field.

We now report the electrocatalytic dehydrogenation of tetrahydroquinaldine by an electron-rich CpNi N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) with quinoid ligand motifs and explore the effects of quinone additives on CpNi compounds without quinoid NHC ligands. Our CpNi(NHC) catalyst exhibits dehydrogenative electrocatalytic activity and demonstrates that a molecular catalyst precursor can be viable in the electrode-driven (H+ + e−) release step of “virtual hydrogen storage”.

A mechanochemical oxidation of methoxylated aromatic chemicals is described, providing an example of a very different selectivity as compared to solution-based chemistry. Oxone was shown to react with 1,2,3-trimethoxybenzene to yield predominantly 2,6-dimethoxybenzoquinone in the solid state or 2,3,4-trimethoxyphenol in solution. The difference in effective acidity of the reaction conditions was not apparently responsible for the observed selectivity. The mechanochemical method described is simple, reproducible, and gave higher yield at higher conversion of substrate compared to solution conditions.

A series of cyclometalated benzoquinoline complexes of Ir(III) catalyze the hydrogenation of the heterocyclic ring of quinolines under mild conditions. Our best catalyst is active in a significantly wider range of solvents than our previous systems. In the presence of a suitable base, the Ir(III) species is also able to hydrogenate the C═O bonds of aldehydes. When quinolines and aldehydes are present together, the Ir(III) complex catalyzes a tandem reaction in which the quinoline is first hydrogenated to a tetrahydroquinoline that is subsequently reductively alkylated by the aldehyde. The reductive alkylation competes with the hydrogenation of the aldehyde to the alcohol, and therefore good yields of the alkylated tetrahydroquinoline require the presence of excess aldehyde.

Sodium periodate (NaIO4) is shown to be a milder and more efficient terminal oxidant for C–H oxidation with Cp*Ir (Cp* = C5Me5) precatalysts than ceric(IV) ammonium nitrate. Synthetically useful yields, regioselectivities, and functional group tolerance were found for methylene oxidation of substrates bearing a phenyl, ketone, ester, or sulfonate group. Oxidation of the natural products (−)-ambroxide and sclareolide proceeded selectively, and retention of configuration was seen in cis-decalin hydroxylation. At 60 °C, even primary C–H bonds can be activated: whereas methane was overoxidized to CO2 in 39% yield without giving partially oxidized products, ethane was transformed into acetic acid in 25% yield based on total NaIO4. 18O labeling was demonstrated in cis-decalin hydroxylation with 18OH2 and NaIO4. A kinetic isotope effect of 3.0 ± 0.1 was found in cyclohexane oxidation at 23 °C, suggesting C–H bond cleavage as the rate-limiting step. Competition experiments between C–H and water oxidation show that C–H oxidation of sodium 4-ethylbenzene sulfonate is favored by 4 orders of magnitude. In operando time-resolved dynamic light scattering and kinetic analysis exclude the involvement of metal oxide nanoparticles and support our previously suggested homogeneous pathway.

Efforts to improve the ease of assembly and robustness of photoanodes for light-driven water oxidation have led to the development of a modular assembly method for anchoring high-potential zinc porphyrins to TiO2 via coordination to surface-bound pyridine linkers. It is essential that the anchoring groups provide strong electronic coupling between the molecular dye and metal oxide surface for optimal electron injection and that they are robust under the operating conditions of the system. Here, four linker molecules functionalized with either carboxylate, phosphonate, acetylacetonate, or hydroxamate anchoring groups are compared for their relative water stability on TiO2. We also report the relative electron injection efficiencies, as measured by terahertz spectroscopy, for high-potential zinc porphyrins coordinated to TiO2 via pyridyl linkers with the series of anchoring groups.

High performance dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) rely upon molecular linkers that allow efficient electron transport from the photoexcited dye into the conduction band of the semiconductor host substrate. We have studied photoinduced electron injection efficiencies from modular assemblies of a Zn-porphyrin dye and a series of linker molecules which are axially bound to the Zn-porphyrin complex and covalently bound to TiO2 nanoparticles. Experimental measurements based on terahertz spectroscopy are compared to the calculated molecular conductance of the linker molecules. We find a linear relationship between measured electron injection efficiency and calculated single-molecule conductance of the linker employed. Since the same chromophore is used in all cases, variations in the absorptivities of the adsorbate complexes are quite small and cannot account for the large variations in observed injection efficiencies. These results suggest that the linker single-molecule conductance is a key factor that should be optimized for maximum electron injection efficiencies in DSSCs. In addition, our findings demonstrate for the first time the possibility of inferring values of single molecule conductance for bridging molecules at semiconductor interfaces by using time-resolved THz spectroscopy.

Real-time monitoring of light scattering and UV–vis profiles of four different Cp*IrIII precursors under various conditions give insight into nanoparticle formation during oxidation catalysis with NaIO4 as primary oxidant. Complexes bearing chelate ligands such as 2,2′-bipyridine, 2-phenylpyridine, or 2-(2′-pyridyl)-2-propanolate were found to be highly resistant toward particle formation, and oxidation catalysis with these compounds is thus believed to be molecular in nature under our conditions. Even with the less stable hydroxo/aqua complex [Cp*2Ir2(μ-OH)3]OH, nanoparticle formation strongly depended on the exact conditions and elapsed time. Test experiments on the isolated particles and comparison of UV–vis data with light scattering profiles revealed that the formation of a deep purple-blue color (∼580 nm) is not indicative of particle formation during oxidation catalysis with molecular iridium precursors as suggested previously.

Interfacial electron transfer (IET) between a chromophore and a semiconductor nanoparticle is one of the key processes in a dye-sensitized solar cell. Theoretical simulations of the electron transfer in polyoxotitanate nanoclusters Ti17O24(OPri)20 (Ti17) functionalized with four p-nitrophenyl acetylacetone (NPA-H) adsorbates, of which the atomic structure has been fully established by X-ray diffraction measurements, are presented. Complementary experimental information showing IET has been obtained by EPR spectroscopy. Evolution of the time-dependent photoexcited electron during the initial 5 fs after instantaneous excitation to the NPA LUMO + 1 has been evaluated. Evidence for delocalization of the excitation over multiple chromophores after excitation to the NPA LUMO + 2 state on a 15 fs time scale is also obtained. While chromophores are generally considered electronically isolated with respect to neighboring sensitizers, our calculations show that this is not necessarily the case. The present work is the most comprehensive study to date of a sensitized semiconductor nanoparticle in which the structure of the surface and the mode of molecular adsorption are precisely defined.

Light-driven water oxidation is an essential step for conversion of sunlight into storable chemical fuels. Fujishima and Honda reported the first example of photoelectrochemical water oxidation in 1972. In their system, TiO2 was irradiated with ultraviolet light, producing oxygen at the anode and hydrogen at a platinum cathode. Inspired by this system, more recent work has focused on functionalizing nanoporous TiO2 or other semiconductor surfaces with molecular adsorbates, including chromophores and catalysts that absorb visible light and generate electricity (i.e., dye-sensitized solar cells) or trigger water oxidation at low overpotentials (i.e., photocatalytic cells). The physics involved in harnessing multiple photochemical events for multi-electron reactions, as required in the four-electron water-oxidation process, has been the subject of much experimental and computational study. In spite of significant advances with regard to individual components, the development of highly efficient photocatalytic cells for solar water splitting remains an outstanding challenge. This article reviews recent progress in the field with emphasis on water-oxidation photoanodes inspired by the design of functionalized thin-film semiconductors of typical dye-sensitized solar cells.Graphical abstract.Highlights► Anodes for light-driven water oxidation. ► Design includes semiconductor, light-harvesting molecule, and catalyst. ► Integration of components is greatest challenge.

A series of Cp*Ir complexes are active precatalysts in C–H oxidation of cis-decalin, cyclooctane, 1-acetylpyrrolidine, tetrahydrofurans, and γ-lactones. Moderate to high yields were achieved, and surprisingly, high selectivity for mono-oxidation of cyclooctane to cyclooctanone was observed. Kinetic isotope effect experiments in the C–H oxidation of ethylbenezene to acetophenone yield kH/kD = 15.4 ± 0.8 at 23 °C and 17.8 ± 1.2 at 0 °C, which are consistent with C–H oxidation being the rate-limiting step with a significant tunneling contribution. The nature of the active species was investigated by TEM, UV–vis, microfiltration, and control experiments. DFT calculations showed that the C–H oxidation of cis-decalin by Cp*Ir(ppy)(Cl) (ppy = o-phenylpyridine) follows a direct oxygen insertion mechanism on the singlet potential energy surface, rather than the radical rebound route that would be seen for the triplet, in good agreement with the retention of stereochemistry observed in this reaction.Keywords: alkane activation; C−H oxidation; DFT; insertion; iridium; metal oxo; oxene; reaction mechanism;

Nonplatinum metals are needed to perform cost-effective water reduction electrocatalysis to enable technological implementation of a proposed hydrogen economy. We describe electrocatalytic proton reduction and H2 production by two organometallic nickel complexes with tridentate pincer ligands. The kinetics of H2 production from voltammetry is consistent with an overall third order rate law: the reaction is second order in acid and first order in catalyst. Hydrogen production with 90–95% Faradaic yields was confirmed by gas analysis, and UV–vis spectroscopy suggests that the ligand remains bound to the catalyst over the course of the reaction. A computational study provides mechanistic insights into the proposed catalytic cycle. Furthermore, two proposed intermediates in the proton reduction cycle were isolated in a representative system and show a catalytic response akin to the parent compound.

A chelating ligand formed by deprotonation of 2-(2′-pyridyl)-2-propanol stabilizes a distorted trigonal bipyramidal geometry in a 16e– d6 5-coordinate iridium complex with the alkoxide acting as a π donor. Ambiphilic species such as AcOH bearing both nucleophilic and electrophilic functionality form adducts with the unsaturated iridium complex which contain strong intramolecular O···H···O hydrogen bonds that involve the basic alkoxide oxygen. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations on the isolated cations reproduce with high accuracy the geometrical features obtained via X-ray diffraction and corroborate the presence of very short hydrogen bonds with O···O distances of about 2.4 Å. Calculations further confirm the known trend that the hydrogen position in these bonds is sensitive to the O···O distance, with the shortest distances giving rise to symmetrical O···H···O interactions. Dihydrogen is shown to add across the Ir–O π bond in a presumed proton transfer reaction, demonstrating bifunctional behavior by the iridium alkoxide.

Unlike some other Ir(III) hydrides, the aminopyridine complex [(2-NH2–C5NH4)IrH3(PPh3)2] (1-PPh3) does not insert CO2 into the Ir–H bond. Instead 1-PPh3 loses H2 to form the cyclometalated species [(κ2-N,N-2-NH-C5NH4)IrH2(PPh3)2] (2-PPh3), which subsequently reacts with CO2 to form the carbamato species [(κ2-O,N-2-OC(O)NH-C5NH4)IrH2(PPh3)2] (10-PPh3). To study the insertion of CO2 into the Ir–N bond of the cyclometalated species, a family of compounds of the type [(κ2-N,N-2-NR-C5NH4)IrH2(PR′3)2] (R = H, R′ = Ph (2-PPh3); R = H, R′ = Cy (2-PCy3); R = Me, R′ = Ph (4-PPh3); R = Ph, R′ = Ph (5-PPh3); R = Ph, R′ = Cy (5-PCy3)) and the pyrimidine complex [(κ2-N,N-2-NH-C4N2H3)IrH2(PPh3)2] (6-PPh3) were prepared. The rate of CO2 insertion is faster for the more nucleophilic amides. DFT studies suggest that the mechanism of insertion involves initial nucleophilic attack of the nitrogen lone pair of the amide on CO2 to form an N-bound carbamato complex, followed by rearrangement to the O-bound species. CO2 insertion into 1-PPh3 is reversible in the presence of H2 and treatment of 10-PPh3 with H2 regenerates 1-PPh3, along with Ir(PPh3)2H5.

Electrodeposition of iridium oxide layers from soluble precursors provides a route to active thin-layer electrocatalysts for use on water-oxidizing anodes. Certain organometallic half-sandwich aqua complexes of iridium form stable and highly active oxide films upon electrochemical oxidation in aqueous solution. The catalyst films appear as blue layers on the anode when sufficiently thick, and most closely resemble hydrous iridium(III,IV) oxide by voltammetry. The deposition rate and cyclic voltammetric response of the electrodeposited material depend on whether the precursor complex contains a pentamethylcyclopentadieneyl (Cp*) or cyclopentadienyl ligand (Cp), and do not match, in either case, iridium oxide anodes prepared from non-organometallic precursors. Here, we survey our organometallic precursors, iridium hydroxide, and pre-formed iridium oxide nanoparticles. From electrochemical quartz crystal nanobalance (EQCN) studies, we find differences in the rate of electrodeposition of catalyst layers from the two half-sandwich precursors; however, the resulting layers operate as water-oxidizing anodes with indistinguishable overpotentials and H/D isotope effects. Furthermore, using the mass data collected by EQCN and not otherwise available, we show that the electrodeposited materials are excellent catalysts for the water-oxidation reaction, showing maximum turnover frequencies greater than 0.5 mol O2 (mol iridium)−1 s–1 and quantitative conversion of current to product dioxygen. Importantly, these anodes maintain their high activity and robustness at very low iridium loadings. Our organometallic precursors contrast with pre-formed iridium oxide nanoparticles, which form an unstable electrodeposited material that is not stably adherent to the anode surface at even moderately oxidizing potentials.

Sodium periodate was characterized as a primary chemical oxidant for the catalytic evolution of oxygen at neutral pH using a variety of water-oxidation catalysts. The visible spectra of solutions formed from Cp*Ir(bpy)SO4 during oxygen-evolution catalysis were measured. NMR spectroscopy suggests that the catalyst remains molecular after several turnovers with sodium periodate. Two of our [Cp*Ir(bis-NHC)][PF6]2 complexes, along with other literature catalysts, such as the manganese terpyridyl dimer, Hill’s cobalt polyoxometallate, and Meyer’s blue dimer, were also tested for activity. Sodium periodate was found to function only for water-oxidation catalysts with low overpotentials. This specificity is attributed to the relatively low oxidizing capability of sodium periodate solutions relative to solutions of other common primary oxidants. Studying oxygen-evolution catalysis by using sodium periodate as a primary oxidant may, therefore, provide preliminary evidence that a given catalyst has a low overpotential.

The speciation behavior of a water-soluble manganese(III) tetrasulfonated phthalocyanine complex was investigated with UV-visible and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopies, as well as cyclic voltammetry. Parallel-mode EPR (in dimethylformamide:pyridine solvent mix) reveals a six-line hyperfine signal, centered at a g-value of 8.8, for the manganese(III) monomer, characteristic of the d4S = 2 system. The color of an aqueous solution containing the complex is dependent upon the pH of the solution; the phthalocyanine complex can exist as a water-bound monomer, a hydroxide-bound monomer, or an oxo-bridged dimer. Addition of coordinating bases such as borate or pyridine changes the speciation behavior by coordinating the manganese center. From the UV-visible spectra, complete speciation diagrams are plotted by global analysis of the pH-dependent UV-visible spectra, and a complete set of pKa values is obtained by fitting the data to a standard pKa model. Electrochemical studies reveal a pH-independent quasi-reversible oxidation event for the monomeric species, which likely involves oxidation of the organic ligand to the radical cation species. Adsorption of the phthalocyanine complex on the carbon working electrode was sometimes observed. The pKa values and electrochemistry data are discussed in the context of the development of mononuclear water-oxidation catalysts.

A NiII complex with a redox-active pincer ligand reduces protons at a low overpotential in aqueous acidic conditions. A combined experimental and computational study provides mechanistic insights into a putative catalytic cycle.

C–H activation of the methyl group of toluene and related ArCH3 derivatives by 2,3-dichloro-4,5-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) gives insertion products, ArCH2O[C6Cl2(CN)2]OH via a rate-determining hydride abstraction by DDQ. The resulting benzylic ether can undergo reactions with phosphines to give benzylic phosphonium salts (Wittig reagents) and with phosphites to give phosphonate esters (Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reagents).

We report a selection of high-potential porphyrin photoanodes (HPPPs) for use in photoelectrochemical cells (PECs). The anodes consist of bispentafluorophenyl free-base and metallo-porphyrin sensitizers bearing anchoring groups for attachment to metal-oxide surfaces including TiO2 and SnO2 nanoparticles. The term “high potential” refers to the relatively large and positive value of the electrochemical reduction potential for the bispentafluorophenyl porphyrin radical cation (P•+ + e– → P) as compared with more conventional nonfluorinated analogues. Photoelectrochemical measurements demonstrate the sensitizers used in these HPPPs extend the absorption of the bare anode well into the visible region. Terahertz spectroscopic studies show the photoexcited dyes are capable of injecting electrons into the conduction band of an underlying metal-oxide with appropriate energetics. The reduction potentials of the resulting photogenerated porphyrin radical cations are relatively high (ranging from ∼1.35 to 1.65 V vs NHE depending on the sensitizer). This is demonstrated by the ability of dye-sensitized solar cells, containing our HPPPs, to use the Br3–/Br– redox couple as a regenerative electron mediator with superior performance in comparison to results obtained using the lower-potential I3–/I– relay. Computational modeling of the structures and equivalent circuits assists in a molecular-based understanding of these systems. Further, the oxidation power of the porphyrin radical cations generated in these bioinspired constructs is similar to that found in the reaction centers of their natural counterpart (photosystem II); thus, HPPPs are promising as components in artificial systems for photochemical water spitting applications.

Cp*IrIII and CpIrIII complexes have attracted interest as catalysts for oxidative transformations, and highly oxidizing iridium species are postulated as key intermediates in both catalytic water and C–H bond oxidation. Strongly electron-donating ligand sets have been shown to stabilize IrIV complexes. We describe the synthesis and reactivity of complexes containing the CpIr(biphenyl-2,2′-diyl) moiety stabilized by a series of strong donor carbon-based ligands. The oxidation chemistry of these complexes has been characterized electrochemically, and a singly oxidized IrIV species has been observed by X-band EPR for the complex CpIr(biph)(p-CNCH2SO2C6H4CH3).

A high-potential porphyrin is codeposited on TiO2 nanoparticles together with our Cp*–iridium water-oxidation catalyst to give a photoanode for a water-splitting cell. The photoanode optically resembles the porphyrin yet electrochemically responds like the Ir catalyst when it is immersed in aqueous solutions. Photoelectrochemical data show that illumination of the codeposited anode in water results in a marked enhancement and stability of the photocurrent, providing evidence for light-induced activation of the catalyst.

Molecular water-oxidation catalysts can deactivate by side reactions or decompose to secondary materials over time due to the harsh, oxidizing conditions required to drive oxygen evolution. Distinguishing electrode surface-bound heterogeneous catalysts (such as iridium oxide) from homogeneous molecular catalysts is often difficult. Using an electrochemical quartz crystal nanobalance (EQCN), we report a method for probing electrodeposition of metal oxide materials from molecular precursors. Using the previously reported [Cp*Ir(H2O)3]2+ complex, we monitor deposition of a heterogeneous water oxidation catalyst by measuring the electrode mass in real time with piezoelectric gravimetry. Conversely, we do not observe deposition for homogeneous catalysts, such as the water-soluble complex Cp*Ir(pyr-CMe2O)X reported in this work. Rotating ring-disk electrode electrochemistry and Clark-type electrode studies show that this complex is a catalyst for water oxidation with oxygen produced as the product. For the heterogeneous, surface-attached material generated from [Cp*Ir(H2O)3]2+, we can estimate the percentage of electroactive metal centers in the surface layer. We monitor electrode composition dynamically during catalytic turnover, providing new information on catalytic performance. Together, these data suggest that EQCN can directly probe the homogeneity of molecular water-oxidation catalysts over short times.

An inverse design methodology suitable to assist the synthesis and optimization of molecular sensitizers for dye-sensitized solar cells is introduced. The method searches for molecular adsorbates with suitable photoabsorption properties through continuous optimization of “alchemical” structures in the vicinity of a reference molecular framework. The approach is illustrated as applied to the design and optimization of linker chromophores for TiO2 sensitization, using the recently developed phenyl-acetylacetonate (i.e., phenyl-acac) anchor [McNamara et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc.2008, 130, 14329–14338] as a reference framework. A novel anchor (3-acac-pyran-2-one) is found to be a local optimum, with improved sensitization properties when compared to phenyl-acac. Its molecular structure is related to known coumarin dyes that could be used as lead chromophore anchors for practical applications in dye-sensitized solar cells. Synthesis and spectroscopic characterization confirms that the linker provides robust attachment to TiO2, even in aqueous conditions, yielding improved sensitization to solar light and ultrafast interfacial electron injection. The findings are particularly relevant to the design of sensitizers for dye-sensitized solar cells because of the wide variety of structures that are possible but they should be equally useful for other applications such as ligand design for homogeneous catalysis.

Artificial photosynthesis, modeled on natural light-driven oxidation of water in Photosystem II, holds promise as a sustainable source of reducing equivalents for producing fuels. Few robust water-oxidation catalysts capable of mediating this difficult four-electron, four-proton reaction have yet been described. We report a new method for generating an amorphous electrodeposited material, principally consisting of iridium and oxygen, which is a robust and long-lived catalyst for water oxidation, when driven electrochemically. The catalyst material is generated by a simple anodic deposition from Cp*Ir aqua or hydroxo complexes in aqueous solution. This work suggests that organometallic precursors may be useful in electrodeposition of inorganic heterogeneous catalysts.

The catalytic water-oxidation activity of Wilkinson's iridium acetate trimer (1) has been characterized electrochemically and by using chemical oxidants. We show that 1 can function as an operationally homogeneous water-oxidation catalyst when driven with sodium periodate as a primary oxidant, but rapidly decomposes using Ce(IV) as a primary oxidant.

Ruthenium polypyridyl complexes have seen extensive use in solar energy applications. One of the most efficient dye-sensitized solar cells produced to date employs the dye-sensitizer N719, a ruthenium polypyridyl thiocyanate complex. Thiocyanate complexes are typically present as an inseparable mixture of N-bound and S-bound linkage isomers. Here we report the synthesis of a new complex, [Ru(terpy)(tbbpy)SCN][SbF6] (terpy = 2,2′;6′,2″-terpyridine, tbbpy = 4,4′-di-tert-butyl-2,2′-bipyridine), as a mixture of N-bound and S-bound thiocyanate linkage isomers that can be separated based on their relative solubility in ethanol. Both isomers have been characterized spectroscopically and by X-ray crystallography. At elevated temperatures the isomers equilibrate, the product being significantly enriched in the more thermodynamically stable N-bound form. Density functional theory analysis supports our experimental observation that the N-bound isomer is thermodynamically preferred, and provides insight into the isomerization mechanism.

2,3-Dichloro-5,6-dicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ) is an electrochemical oxidation catalyst for a secondary amine, a model system for virtual hydrogen storage by removal of a hydrogen equivalent from an amine; a computational study provides mechanistic information.

The Ir precatalyst (3) contains both a Cp* and a κ2C2,C2′-1,3-diphenylimidazol-2-ylidene ligand, a C−C chelate, where one C donor is the NHC and the other is a cyclometalated N-phenyl wingtip group. The structure of 3 was confirmed by X-ray crystallography. Like our other recently described Cp*Ir catalysts, this compound is a precursor to a catalyst that can oxidize water to dioxygen. Electrochemical characterization of the new compound shows that it has a stable iridium(IV) oxidation state, [Cp*IrIV(NHC)Cl]+, in contrast with the unstable Ir(IV) state seen in our previous cyclometalated [Cp*IrIII(2-pyridyl-2′-phenyl)Cl] catalyst. The new iridium(IV) species has been characterized by EPR spectroscopy and has a rhombic symmetry, a consequence of the ligand environment. These results both support previous studies which suggest that Cp*Ir catalysts can be advanced through the relevant catalytic cycle(s) in one-electron steps and help clarify the electrochemical behavior of this class of water-oxidation catalysts.

A series of ruthenium complexes can perform the acceptorless dehydrogenation of diols as well as the reaction of amines and alcohols to form ester, lactam, and amide products. The ligand criteria necessary for high catalytic activity are identified to guide future catalyst development for amide formation from amines and alcohols. These complexes can be employed in a dehydrogenative Paal–Knorr pyrrole synthesis to give 2,5-dimethyl-N-alkylpyrroles.

A novel class of derivatized hydroxamic acid linkages for robust sensitization of TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) under various aqueous conditions is described. The stability of linkages bound to metal oxides under various conditions is important in developing photocatalytic cells which incorporate transition metal complexes for solar energy conversion. In order to compare the standard carboxylate anchor to hydroxamates, two organic dyes differing only in anchoring groups were synthesized and attached to TiO2 NPs. At acidic, basic, and close to neutral pH, hydroxamic acid linkages resist detachment compared to the labile carboxylic acids. THz spectroscopy was used to compare ultrafast interfacial electron transfer (IET) into the conduction band of TiO2 for both linkages and found similar IET characteristics. Observable electron injection and stronger binding suggest that hydroxamates are a suitable class of anchors for designing water stable molecules for functionalizing TiO2.

Iridium half-sandwich complexes of the types Cp*Ir(N−C)X, [Cp*Ir(N−N)X]X, and [CpIr(N−N)X]X are catalyst precursors for the homogeneous oxidation of water to dioxygen. Kinetic studies with cerium(IV) ammonium nitrate as primary oxidant show that oxygen evolution is rapid and continues over many hours. In addition, [Cp*Ir(H2O)3]SO4 and [(Cp*Ir)2(μ-OH)3]OH can show even higher turnover frequencies (up to 20 min−1 at pH 0.89). Aqueous electrochemical studies on the cationic complexes having chelate ligands show catalytic oxidation at pH > 7; conversely, at low pH, there are no oxidation waves up to 1.5 V vs NHE for the complexes. H218O isotope incorporation studies demonstrate that water is the source of oxygen atoms during cerium(IV)-driven catalysis. DFT calculations and kinetic experiments, including kinetic-isotope-effect studies, suggest a mechanism for homogeneous iridium-catalyzed water oxidation and contribute to the determination of the rate-determining step. The kinetic experiments also help distinguish the active homogeneous catalyst from heterogeneous nanoparticulate iridium dioxide.

We describe competitive C−H bond activation chemistry of two types, desaturation and hydroxylation, using synthetic manganese catalysts with several substrates. 9,10-Dihydrophenanthrene (DHP) gives the highest desaturation activity, the final products being phenanthrene (P1) and phenanthrene 9,10-oxide (P3), the latter being thought to arise from epoxidation of some of the phenanthrene. The hydroxylase pathway also occurs as suggested by the presence of the dione product, phenanthrene-9,10-dione (P2), thought to arise from further oxidation of hydroxylation intermediate 9-hydroxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene. The experimental work together with the density functional theory (DFT) calculations shows that the postulated Mn oxo active species, [Mn(O)(tpp)(Cl)] (tpp = tetraphenylporphyrin), can promote the oxidation of dihydrophenanthrene by either desaturation or hydroxylation pathways. The calculations show that these two competing reactions have a common initial step, radical H abstraction from one of the DHP sp3 C−H bonds. The resulting Mn hydroxo intermediate is capable of promoting not only OH rebound (hydroxylation) but also a second H abstraction adjacent to the first (desaturation). Like the active MnV═O species, this MnIV−OH species also has radical character on oxygen and can thus give H abstraction. Both steps have very low and therefore very similar energy barriers, leading to a product mixture. Since the radical character of the catalyst is located on the oxygen p orbital perpendicular to the MnIV−OH plane, the orientation of the organic radical with respect to this plane determines which reaction, desaturation or hydroxylation, will occur. Stereoelectronic factors such as the rotational orientation of the OH group in the enzyme active site are thus likely to constitute the switch between hydroxylase and desaturase behavior.

A series of Cp*Ir complexes can catalyze C−H oxidation, with ceric ammonium nitrate as the terminal oxidant and water as the source of oxygen. Remarkably the hydroxylation of cis-decalin and 1,4-dimethylcyclohexane proceeds with retention of stereochemistry. With H2O18, cis-decalin oxidation gave 18O incorporation into the product cis-decalol.

Benzylic secondary alcohols can be alkylated in good yields at the β-position with primary alcohols promoted by KOH and NaOH, eliminating the need for toxic and expensive transition metal catalysts.

Photosynthetic water oxidation occurs naturally at a tetranuclear manganese center in the photosystem II protein complex. Synthetically mimicking this tetramanganese center, known as the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), has been an ongoing challenge of bioinorganic chemistry. Most past efforts have centered on water-oxidation catalysis using chemical oxidants. However, solar energy applications have drawn attention to electrochemical methods. In this paper, we examine the electrochemical behavior of the biomimetic water-oxidation catalyst [(H2O)(terpy)Mn(μ-O)2Mn(terpy)(H2O)](NO3)3 [terpy = 2,2′:6′,2′′-terpyridine] (1) in water under a variety of pH and buffered conditions and in the presence of acetate that binds to 1 in place of one of the terminal water ligands. These experiments show that 1 not only exhibits proton-coupled electron-transfer reactivity analogous to the OEC, but also may be capable of electrochemical oxidation of water to oxygen.

Ru(DMSO)4Cl2 is catalytically active for converting aldehydes to primary amides via oxime intermediates. This catalyst is readily available, and requires no additional ligands, a great simplification compared to previous work. A Ru(II)/(IV) mechanism is proposed.Ru(DMSO)4Cl2, containing only DMSO and Cl ligands, is catalytically active for the conversion of aldehydes and oximes to amides, with no additives.

A ruthenium(II) diamine complex can catalyze the intramolecular cyclization of amino alcohols H2N(CH2)nOH via two pathways: (i) one yields the cyclic secondary amine by a redox-neutral hydrogen-borrowing route with loss of water; and (ii) the second gives the corresponding cyclic amide by a net oxidation involving loss of H2. The reaction is most efficient in cases where the product has a six-membered ring. The amide and amine pathways are closely related: DFT calculations show that both amine and amide formations start with the oxidation of the amino alcohol, 5-amino-1-pentanol, to the corresponding amino aldehyde, accompanied by reduction of the catalyst. The intramolecular condensation of the amino aldehyde takes place either in the coordination sphere of the metal (path I) or after dissociation from the metal (path II). Path I yields the Ru-bound zwitterionic form of the hemiaminal protonated at nitrogen, which eliminates H2, forming the amide product. In path II, the free hemiaminal dehydrates, giving an imine, which yields the amine product by hydrogenation with the reduced form of the catalyst generated in the initial amino alcohol oxidation. For amide to be formed, the hemiaminal must remain metal-bound in the key intermediate and the elimination of H2 must occur from the same intermediate to provide a vacant site for β-elimination. The elimination of H2 is affected by an intramolecular H-bond in the key intermediate. For amine to be formed, the hemiaminal must be liberated for dehydration to imine and the H2 must be retained on the metal for reduction of the imine intermediate.

In a new strategy for the synthesis of protic NHC complexes, iridium and rhodium complexes of N-benzoyl-substituted NHCs are first generated by direct deprotonation of an acyl-protected imidazolium salt. Deprotection of the acyl group with methanol then gives methyl benzoate and the protic NHC. This sequence represents a new strategy for the synthesis of protic NHC complexes. We expect this strategy to have useful generality.

Several polynuclear transition-metal complexes, including our own dinuclear di-μ-oxo manganese compound [H2O(terpy)MnIII(μ-O)2MnIV(terpy)H2O](NO3)3 (1, terpy = 2,2′:6′,2′′-terpyridine), have been reported to be homogeneous catalysts for water oxidation. This paper reports the covalent attachment of 1 onto nanoparticulate TiO2 surfaces using a robust chromophoric linker L. L, a phenylterpy ligand attached to a 3-phenyl-acetylacetonate anchoring moiety via an amide bond, absorbs visible light and leads to photoinduced interfacial electron transfer into the TiO2 conduction band. We characterize the electronic and structural properties of the 1−L−TiO2 assemblies by using a combination of methods, including computational modeling and UV−visible, IR, and EPR spectroscopies. We show that the Mn(III,IV) state of 1 can be reversibly advanced to the Mn(IV,IV) state by visible-light photoexcitation of 1−L−TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) and recombines back to the Mn(III,IV) state in the dark, in the absence of electron scavengers. Our findings also indicate that a high degree of crystallinity of the TiO2 NPs is essential for promoting photooxidation of the adsorbates by photoinduced charge separation when the TiO2 NPs serve as electron acceptors in artificial photosynthetic assemblies. The reported results are particularly relevant to the development of photocatalytic devices for oxidation chemistry based on inexpensive materials (e.g., TiO2 and Mn complexes) that are robust under aqueous and oxidative conditions.

Inexpensive water oxidation catalysts are needed to develop photocatalytic solar cells that mimic photosynthesis and produce fuel from sunlight and water. This paper reports the successful attachment of a dinuclear di-µ-oxo manganese water oxidation catalyst [H2O(terpy)MnIII(µ-O)2 MnIV(terpy)H2O](NO3)3 (1, terpy = 2,2′:6′2″-terpyridine) onto TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) via direct adsorption, or in situ synthesis. The resulting surface complexes are characterized by EPR and UV-visible spectroscopy, electrochemical measurements and computational modeling. We conclude that the mixed-valence (III,IV) state of 1 attaches to near-amorphous TiO2 NPs by substituting one of its water ligands by the TiO2 NP, as suggested by low-temperature (7 K) EPR data. In contrast, the analogous attachment onto well-crystallized TiO2 NPs leads to dimerization of 1 forming Mn(IV) tetramers on the TiO2 surface as suggested by EPR spectroscopy and electrochemical studies.

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A series of Cp*Ir catalysts are the most active known by over an order of magnitude for water oxidation with Ce(IV). DFT calculations support a Cp*Ir═O complex as an active species.

Selective epoxidation of alkenes is possible with a new manganese porphyrin catalyst, CPMR, that uses hydrogen bonding between the carboxylic acid on the substrate molecule and a Kemp’s triacid unit. For two out of three olefin substrates employed, molecular recognition prevents the unselective oxidation of C−H bonds, and directs oxidation to the olefin moiety, giving only epoxide products. Weak diastereoselectivity is observed in the epoxide products, suggesting that molecular recognition affects the orientation of the catalyst-bound substrate. The previously reported manganese terpyridine complex CTMR is shown to be a superior epoxidation catalyst to the porphyrin catalyst CPMR. Good conversion of 2-cyclopentene acetic acid (substrate S2) with CPMR is consistent with molecular modeling, which indicates a particularly good substrate/catalyst match. Evidence suggests that hydrogen bonding between the substrate and the catalyst is critical in this system.

A synergistic effect between anatase and rutile TiO2 is known, in which the addition of rutile can remarkably enhance the photocatalytic activity of anatase in the degradation of organic contaminants. In this study, mixed-phase TiO2 nanocomposites consisting of anatase and rutile nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared for use as photoanodes in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) and were characterized by using UV-vis spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. The addition of 10–15% rutile significantly improved light harvesting and the overall solar conversion efficiency of anatase NPs in DSSCs. The underlying mechanism for the synergistic effect in DSSCs is now explored by using time-resolved terahertz spectroscopy. It is clearly demonstrated that photo-excited electrons injected into the rutile NPs can migrate to the conduction band of anatase NPs, enhancing the photocurrent and efficiency. Interfacial electron transfer from rutile to anatase, similar to that in heterogeneous photocatalysis, is proposed to account for the synergistic effect in DSSCs. Our results further suggest that the synergistic effect can be used to explain the beneficial effect of TiCl4 treatment on DSSC efficiency.

We report a rapid method for assembling our di-μ-oxo dimanganese catalyst, verified by ESI-MS and EPR, assessing its water oxidation activity by a Clark electrode O2-assay study and its regioselective C–H activation activity by product analysis in catalytic runs.A rapid method is described for assembling a CH activation catalyst that uses molecular recognition to attain high selectivity.

TerpyRu(PPh3)Cl2 is an efficient catalyst for rearranging aldoximes to amides without the need for chelating phosphines or additives as in prior examples. The catalyst is also useful in converting aldehydes into amides in a one-pot process using NaHCO3 as an additive. A mechanism involving nucleophilic attack of deprotonated oxime on an adjacent nitrile is suggested.

Air-stable Ir and Ru complexes of a chelating pyrimidine-functionalized N-heterocyclic carbene were synthesized. The complexes were characterized by NMR spectroscopy and single-crystal X-ray diffraction and were found to be catalytically active for transfer hydrogenation, β-alkylation of secondary alcohols with primary alcohols, and N-alkylation of amines with primary alcohols. Notably, the Ir complexes were found to catalyze the N-alkylation of amines using the mild base NaHCO3.

Microwave heating greatly accelerates Pd-catalyzed decarboxylative coupling of aromatic acids and aryl iodides, and allows the coupling of benzoic acids with unactivated arenes.

[Mn2III/IV(μ-O)2(terpy)2(OH2)2](NO3)3 (1, where terpy = 2,2′:6′2′′-terpyridine) acts as a water-oxidation catalyst with HSO5− as the primary oxidant in aqueous solution and, thus, provides a model system for the oxygen-evolving complex of photosystem II (Limburg, J.; et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 423–430). The majority of the starting [Mn2III/IV(μ-O)2]3+ complex is converted to the[Mn2IV/IV(μ-O)2]4+ form (2) during this reaction (Chen, H.; et al. Inorg. Chem. 2007, 46, 34–43). Here, we have used stopped-flow UV–visible spectroscopy to monitor UV–visible absorbance changes accompanying the conversion of 1 to 2 by HSO5−. With excess HSO5−, the rate of absorbance change was found to be first-order in [1] and nearly zero-order in [HSO5−]. At relatively low [HSO5−], the change of absorbance with time is distinctly biphasic. The observed concentration dependences are interpreted in terms of a model involving the two-electron oxidation of 1 by HSO5−, followed by the rapid reaction of the two-electron-oxidized intermediate with another molecule of 1 to give two molecules of 2. In order to rationalize biphasic behavior at low [HSO5−], we propose a difference in reactivity of the [Mn2III/IV(μ-O)2]3+ complex upon binding of HSO5− to the MnIII site as compared to the reactivity upon binding HSO5− to the MnIV site. The kinetic distinctness of the MnIII and MnIV sites allows us to estimate upper limits for the rates of intramolecular electron transfer and terminal ligand exchange between these sites. The proposed mechanism leads to insights on the optimization of 1 as a water-oxidation catalyst. The rates of terminal ligand exchange and electron transfer between oxo-bridged Mn atoms in the oxygen-evolving complex of photosystem II are discussed in light of these results.

Primary alcohols can be coupled with secondary benzylic alcohols by an air-stable catalytic system involving terpyridine ruthenium or iridium complexes.

The new ligand bitriazole-2-ylidene (bitz) has been successfully coordinated to Ru(II), Pd(II), Rh(I), Rh(II), and Rh(III), showing its wide chemical versatility. Reaction of the bitz ligand precursor salt, 1,1′-methyl-4,4′-bi-1,2,4-triazolium diiodide, with [RhCl(cod)]2 under mild conditions afforded chelate and bis-chelate Rh(III) complexes, as well as an unexpected metal−metal bounded di-Rh(II) species. The reaction of the precursor salt of bitz with [(η6-p-cymene)RuCl2]2 and NaOAc afforded a mixture of chelate and dimetallic Ru(II)-arene complexes. The reaction of the salt with Pd(OAc)2 led to a chelate complex. In an unexpected, purely organic reaction, the precursor salt rearranges to a new C−C bound bitriazole on reaction with strong base in the absence of the metal. The electron-donor power of the bitz ligand, estimated by DFT computations, proved to be very low for an NHC and comparable with those of dmpe and dipy. Some of the new complexes proved to be catalytically active in hydrogen transfer from iPrOH.

DFT(B3PW91) calculations show that release of H2 is greatly favored thermodynamically in five membered rings over six and by the incorporation of N atoms into the rings, either as ring atoms or as ring substituents, particularly in 1,3 positions.

The new ligand bitriazole-2-ylidene (bitz) reliably chelates to Rh under very mild conditions, providing an NHC analogue of 2,2′-dipyridyl ligand.

O2 evolution was observed upon mixing aqueous [(terpy)(H2O)Mn(O)2Mn(H2O)(terpy)](NO3)3 (1, terpy = 2,2′:6′,6″-terpyridine) with aqueous solutions of Ce4+. However, when the solution of 1 was incubated at pH 1 (by dissolving in dilute HNO3) before mixing with Ce4+, very small amounts of O2 were observed. This observation of acid-induced deactivation suggests an explanation, both for the previously reported lack of O2 evolution from aqueous solutions of 1 with Ce4+ as oxidant, and the present observation of low amounts of O2 production with the very acidic Ce4+ reagent. Evidence is provided for water being the source of evolved O2, and for the requirement of a high valent multinuclear Mn species for O2 evolution. We test the possibility of complications in the use of ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) in oxidation chemistry due to the presence of the oxidizable NH4+ ion.The title compound 1 is shown to oxidize water in the presence of Ce4+ as the primary electron acceptor. Evidence is provided for higher oxidation states of 1 as the water-oxidizing species, and low-valent mononuclear manganese species formed from 1 under acidic conditions are shown to be inactive. The potential for catalytic water oxidation by 1 in the presence of electron acceptor oxidants is discussed.

In an experimental and computational study, nitrogen- and oxygen-containing heterocycles were compared with carbocycles as liquid substrates for hydrogen release with heterogeneous catalysts. Heteroatom substitution, particularly by nitrogen, favours low temperature H2 release; indoline was fully dehydrogenated in less than 30 min with Pd/C at 110 °C.

The new hexadentate, bis-pincer ligand, (dipyCH2)MeNCH2CH2NMe(CH2dipy) (dipy = 2,2′-dipyridyl-6-yl) forms a crystallographically characterized Mn(II) complex in which each half of the ligand binds a separate Mn(OAc)2 unit. The structure consists of a distorted N3Mn(η2-OAc)(η1-OAc) core with six normal coordinate bonds and a long (2.85 Å) secondary bond to a seventh ligand atom, an oxygen of the η1-acetate. In addition to demonstrating an interesting coordination mode, the structure also mimics a predicted transition state in the associative ligand exchange of octahedral Mn(II) complexes.The crystal structure of a novel pseudo-seven-coordinate Mn(II) complex containing a long secondary bond to the seventh ligand atom demonstrates an interesting coordination mode, and mimics a previously predicted transition state in the associative ligand exchange of octahedral Mn(II) complexes.

During the last decade, the use of N-heterocyclic carbene ligands (NHCs) based on imidazolium ions and related heterocycles has emerged as an alternative to phosphines in the design of new organometallic catalysts. We review catalysts with chelate and pincer NHC ligands, including complexes of palladium, ruthenium, rhodium and iridium. Transfer hydrogenation and Heck chemistry are given special attention. Also discussed are Suzuki and Sonogashira coupling and immobilization on clay supports. Synthetic aspects are covered as well as a discussion of structural features, catalytic properties and catalyst recovery and recycling.

The title topic is reviewed with emphasis on catalysis and on recent advances. Alkane σ complexes, Shilov chemistry and oxidative addition routes are covered. Attention is also given to σ bond metathesis, surface-bound organometallics and CH activation involving carbene complexes. Closely related reactions of non-alkane substrates such as the Murai reaction are also discussed.The title topic is reviewed with emphasis on catalysis and on recent advances. Alkane σ complexes, Shilov chemistry and oxidative addition routes are covered. Attention is also given to σ bond metathesis, surface-bound organometallics and CH activation involving carbene complexes. Closely related reactions of non-alkane substrates such as the Murai reaction are also discussed.

Reaction of [(nbd)RhCl]2 with a chelating bis-[1,2,4]-triazolium salt gives a nortricyclyl Rh complex.

Interconversion of the two chiral conformations of the square planar Pd(II) CCC pincer carbene complex, 1 (η3-C,C′,C″) (2,6-bis{[N-methyl-N′-methylene]imidazol-2-ylidene}phenyl)bromopalladium(II), and the CNC cation, 2, (η3-C,C′,N)(2,6-bis{[N-methyl-N′-methylene]imidazol-2-ylidene}pyridine)bromopalladium(II)(1+), is characterized by VT NMR spectroscopy. Combined DFT/experimental work indicates two alternative mechanisms. In the case of 1, having no counterion, and several derivatives of 2 with weakly nucleophilic counterions, the fluxional process goes in two steps via an unsymmetrical cationic 4-coordinate intermediate. In this case one carbene ring moves through the square plane before the other. In some cases for 2 with more nucleophilic counterions, such as [{CNC}PdI]I, a second lower-barrier process takes over that depends on the nature of the counterion. We propose that the outer sphere anion reversibly displaces the central N (pyridine) unit of the pincer in a rate limiting step to form a neutral dihalo intermediate that undergoes rapid conformer interconversion. This accounts for the counterion dependence and constitutes an unusual type of fluxionality that couples anion substitution at the metal with the conformational change of the ligand. A pyridine, even when present as the central element of a CNC pincer ligand, can therefore be labile even under mild conditions and reaction mechanisms involving decoordination of such group are therefore possible.

A free pendant 2-amino group in a benzoquinolinate ligand bound to Ir(III) can cause heterolytic dissociation of an adjacent Ir–H2, depending on the nature of the phosphine, L. For L=PMePh2, heterolysis does not occur and an H2 complex, [IrH(H2)(bq-NH2)L2]BF4, is seen, but if L=PPh3 or PCy3, heterolysis does occur and a hydride product, [IrH2(bq-NH3)L2]BF4, is formed by proton transfer from the bound H2 to the pendant NH2 group. The electronic effect of L is not dominant. Theoretical studies (DFT calculations) show that the H2 complex is predicted to be more stable for all the phosphines used, if the anion is ignored. We propose that the hydride isomer, formed when L is bulky, depends on ion pairing effects for its stability. The calculated electrostatic potentials for the two isomers suggest that the counter anion has to be located much closer to the metal in the H2 complex than in the hydride where the anion is much farther from the metal. The bulky phosphines PPh3 and PCy3 favor remote ion pairing and therefore favor the hydride isomer because steric effects disfavor close ion pairing as confirmed by ONIOM (B3PW91/UFF) calculations of the ion pair geometry. An improved synthesis of [IrH5(PCy3)2] is reported.

Chelating rhodium(III) carbene complexes are accessible via a simple synthesis and are catalytically active for hydrogen transfer from alcohols to ketones and imines.

Changing the counter-anion in 2-pyridylmethyl imidazolium salts (Br, BF4, PF6, SbF6) causes their kinetic reaction products with IrH5(PPh3)2 to be switched from normal C-2 to abnormal C-5 binding.

Oxidative addition of the C–H bond at the 2-position of N-(2-pyridyl)imidazolium salts takes place to palladium(0) to lead to unexpected final products containing two carbenes. The formation of either cis or trans bis-carbene complexes, both identified by X-ray crystallography and spectroscopy, apparently is a consequence of the substitution pattern of the imidazolium moiety. A mechanism is suggested based on recent theoretical studies.

The bis-carbene precursor, 1, gives a thermally very robust Pd(II) catalyst for Heck coupling that maintains activity even in boiling diethylacetamide (bp 184 °C) in air.

2-Dimethylaminopyridine (pyNMe2; py = 2-pyridyl) reacts with [H2Ir(OCMe2)2L2]+ (L = PPh3) to give a cyclic carbene complex [H2Ir(CHN(Me)py)L2]+via an oxidative addition, reversible α-elimination sequence.

2-Pyridylmethylimidazolium salts and IrH5(PPh3)2 give an [(N–C)IrH2(PPh3)2]+ species with the imidazole ring bound in the ‘wrong way’: at C-5, not at the expected C-2.

To understand photochemical and thermal alkane activation with IrH2(O2CCF3)(PAr3)2 (Ar =  p-FC6H4), H/D isotope scrambling between alkenes and IrD2(O2CCF3)(PAr3)2 was studied. No unique interpretation of the experimental data was possible, so DFT(B3PW91) calculations on the exchange process in Ir(H)2(O2CCF3)(PH3)2(C2H4) were carried out to distinguish between the possibilities allowed by experiment. Of several possible mechanisms for H/D scrambling, one was strongly preferred and is therefore proposed here. It involves the insertion of the olefin to give an alkyl hydride that reductively eliminates to lead to a transition state that contains an η3-bound alkane. This transition state, which achieves a 1,1′ geminal H/D exchange, is significantly lower in energy than a dihydrido carbene, located as a secondary minimum, eliminating the alternative carbene mechanism. The unexpectedly large binding energy (BDE) of the alkane (“sticky alkane”) to the Ir(O2CCF3)(PH3)2 fragment (BDE = 11.9 kcal mol−1) in this transition state is ascribed in part to the presence of a weakly σ- and π-donating (CF3CO2) group trans to the alkane binding site. The H/D exchange selectivity observed requires that 1,1′-shifts (i.e., M moving to a geminal C–H bond), but not 1,3-shifts, be allowed in the alkane complex. In a key finding, a 1,3-shift in which the metal moves down the alkane chain is indeed found to have a much higher activation energy than the 1,1′-process and is therefore slow in our system. A 1,2-shift has not been considered since it would involve a strong steric hindrance at a tertiary carbon in this system. The mechanism ia an alkane path provides an insight into the closely related photochemical and catalytic thermal alkane dehydrogenation processes mediated by IrH2(O2CCF3)(PAr3)2; the thermal route requires tBuCHCH2 as the hydrogen acceptor. These two alkane reactions are intimately related mechanistically to the isotope exchange because they are proposed to have the same intermediates, in particular the sticky alkane complex. Remarkably, the rate determining step of the thermal (150 °C) alkane dehydrogenation process is predicted to be substitution of the hydrogen acceptor-derived alkane by the alkane substrate.

Dipyrimidylamine (dipm) and tripyrimidylamine (tripm) are reported. A bidentate tripm ruthenium complex, [RuCl(η6-p-cymene)(κ2-tripm)]SbF6, is synthesized and structurally characterized. The presence of an intramolecular CH⋯N hydrogen bond is proposed between the cymene CH and a ring nitrogen in an uncoordinated pyrimidine ring. IR data on [Mo(CO)4(dipm)] suggest that the Tolman electronic parameter of the dipm ligand is similar to that of 2×PPh3. ML bonding may be weaker for pyrimidine versus pyridine because κ2-tripm complexation is apparently more favorable relative to the κ3-form than is the case for tripyridylamine.

We report here the synthesis of the new hydride complexes (C5H4CH(CH2CH2)2NMe)- RuH(PPh3)2 (1) and [(C5H4CH(CH2CH2)2NHMe)-RuH(PPh3)2](BF4) (2), the X-ray crystal structures of 1 and 2, and an unprecedented observation of extremely short relaxation times in a monohydride complex as well as in the reaction of CpRuH(PPh3)2 with a variety of acidic proton donors. The relaxation is much faster than expected for a dipole-dipole process involving the two dihydrogen-bonded protons, but no origin for the effect could be suggested.La réaction de RuH(OCOCH3)(PPh3)3 avec NaCp−N dans le methanol produit (Cp−N)RuH(PPh3)2 (Cp−N = C5H4CH(CH2CH2)2NMe, (1)) caractérisé par RMN multinoyaux et une structure radiocristallographique. La protonation de 1 par 1 équiv de HBF4 conduit à [(C5H4CH(CH2CH2)2NHMe)RuH(PPh3)2](BF4) (2) également caractérisé par une structure radiocristallographique. Les structures moléculaires de 1 et 2 sont très voisines (figures 1 et 2). Le spectre de RMN du 1H présente un signal à −11,49 ppm (t, JP−H: 33,4 Hz) attribuable à l’hydrure. La présence d’un seul hydrure est confirmée par RMN du 31P partiellement découplé du proton qui présente un doublet à 70,0 ppm (JP−H: 34 Hz). Quand la température décroît, le signal de l’hydrure est large entre 273 et 213 K et retrouve sa forme de triplet à température plus basse. Cela est accompagné par un temps de relaxation (T1,) extrêmement faible (1,4 ms à 233 K, 400 MHz); à cette température, le signal est large mais même à plus basse température, quand le signal retrouve sa forme de triplet, le T1 reste très bas (4,8 ms à 223 K). De plus, certains protons du ligand Cp présentent un T1, également faible (environ 10 ms à 233 K). Le reste de la molécule n'est pas affecté et quand un autre complexe est présent dans la même solution (par exemple [(C5H4CH(CH2CH2)2NMe)Ru−(H)2(PPh3)2](BF4) (3) qui résulte de la protonation de 1 par 2 équiv de HBF4), le signal de l’hydrure présente un temps de relaxation normal. Un comportement semblable a été observé lors de la réaction de [CpRuH(PPh3)2] (4) avec des alcools acides tels que le 2,2,3,4,4,4-hexafluoro-1-butanol (HFB), ce qui démontre que la présence de groupements amine ou ammonium n'est pas essentielle pour l’observation de T1 très courts. La valeur minimale du T1 est de 30 ms à 233 K. Nous avons montré que ces phénomènes ne résultent pas de paramagnétisme en solution, de formation de structures supramoléculaires ou de transfert de protons. Nous n'avons pas, à l’heure actuelle, d’explications de ces phénomènes inhabituels.

Hydroxamate binding modes and protonation states have yet to be conclusively determined. Molecular titanium(IV) phenylhydroxamate complexes were synthesized as structural and spectroscopic models, and compared to functionalized TiO2 nanoparticles. In a combined experimental–theoretical study, we find that the predominant binding form is monodeprotonated, with evidence for the chelate mode.

A family of iron complexes of PNP pincer ligands are active catalysts for the conversion of glycerol to lactic acid with high activity and selectivity. These complexes also catalyse transfer hydrogenation reactions using glycerol as the hydrogen source.

The catalytic water-oxidation activity of Wilkinson's iridium acetate trimer (1) has been characterized electrochemically and by using chemical oxidants. We show that 1 can function as an operationally homogeneous water-oxidation catalyst when driven with sodium periodate as a primary oxidant, but rapidly decomposes using Ce(IV) as a primary oxidant.

Microwave heating greatly accelerates Pd-catalyzed decarboxylative coupling of aromatic acids and aryl iodides, and allows the coupling of benzoic acids with unactivated arenes.

DFT(B3PW91) calculations show that release of H2 is greatly favored thermodynamically in five membered rings over six and by the incorporation of N atoms into the rings, either as ring atoms or as ring substituents, particularly in 1,3 positions.

The new ligand bitriazole-2-ylidene (bitz) reliably chelates to Rh under very mild conditions, providing an NHC analogue of 2,2′-dipyridyl ligand.

Artificial photosynthesis, modeled on natural light-driven oxidation of water in Photosystem II, holds promise as a sustainable source of reducing equivalents for producing fuels. Few robust water-oxidation catalysts capable of mediating this difficult four-electron, four-proton reaction have yet been described. We report a new method for generating an amorphous electrodeposited material, principally consisting of iridium and oxygen, which is a robust and long-lived catalyst for water oxidation, when driven electrochemically. The catalyst material is generated by a simple anodic deposition from Cp*Ir aqua or hydroxo complexes in aqueous solution. This work suggests that organometallic precursors may be useful in electrodeposition of inorganic heterogeneous catalysts.

Odd-electron, redox-active ligands are discussed in the context of catalysis. We focus on ligand-based, non-singlet state intermediates and their participation in catalytic processes and related stoichiometric transformations.

In this tutorial review, we compare chemical oxidants for driving water-oxidation catalysts, focusing on the advantages and disadvantages of each oxidant.

Organometallic Ir precatalysts have been found to yield homogeneous Ir-based water-oxidation catalysts (WOCs) with very high activity. The Cp*Ir catalyst series can operate under a variety of regimes: it can either act as a homogeneous or a heterogeneous catalyst; it can be driven by chemical, photochemical, or electrochemical methods; and the molecular catalyst can either act in solution or supported as a molecular unit on a variety of solid oxides. In addition to optimizing the various reaction conditions, work has continued to elucidate the catalyst activation mechanism and identify water-oxidation intermediates. This Perspective will describe the development of the Cp*Ir series, their many forms as WOCs, and their ongoing characterization.

A thin layer of an amorphous, mixed-valence iridium oxide (electrodeposited from an organometallic precursor, [Cp*Ir(H2O)3]2+) is a heterogeneous catalyst among the most active and stable currently available for electrochemical water oxidation. We show that buffers can improve the oxygen-evolution activity of such thin-layer catalysts near neutral pH, but that buffer identity and concentration, as well as the solution pH, remain key determinants of long-term electrocatalyst activity and stability; for example, phosphate buffer can reduce the overpotential by up to 173 mV.

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A tridentate NNN NiII complex, shown to be an electrocatalyst for aqueous H2 production at low overpotentials, is studied by using temperature-dependent paramagnetic 1H NMR. The NMR T1 relaxation rates, temperature dependence of the chemical shifts, and dc SQUID magnetic susceptibility are correlated to DFT chemical shifts and compared with the properties of a diamagnetic Zn analogue complex. The resulting characterization provides an unambiguous assignment of the six proton environments in the meridionally coordinating tridentate NNN ligand. The demonstrated NMR/DFT methodology should be valuable in the search for appropriate ligands to optimize the reactivity of 3d metal complexes bound to attract increasing attention in catalytic applications.

The speciation behavior of a water-soluble manganese(III) tetrasulfonated phthalocyanine complex was investigated with UV-visible and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopies, as well as cyclic voltammetry. Parallel-mode EPR (in dimethylformamide:pyridine solvent mix) reveals a six-line hyperfine signal, centered at a g-value of 8.8, for the manganese(III) monomer, characteristic of the d4S = 2 system. The color of an aqueous solution containing the complex is dependent upon the pH of the solution; the phthalocyanine complex can exist as a water-bound monomer, a hydroxide-bound monomer, or an oxo-bridged dimer. Addition of coordinating bases such as borate or pyridine changes the speciation behavior by coordinating the manganese center. From the UV-visible spectra, complete speciation diagrams are plotted by global analysis of the pH-dependent UV-visible spectra, and a complete set of pKa values is obtained by fitting the data to a standard pKa model. Electrochemical studies reveal a pH-independent quasi-reversible oxidation event for the monomeric species, which likely involves oxidation of the organic ligand to the radical cation species. Adsorption of the phthalocyanine complex on the carbon working electrode was sometimes observed. The pKa values and electrochemistry data are discussed in the context of the development of mononuclear water-oxidation catalysts.

Photosynthetic water oxidation occurs naturally at a tetranuclear manganese center in the photosystem II protein complex. Synthetically mimicking this tetramanganese center, known as the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), has been an ongoing challenge of bioinorganic chemistry. Most past efforts have centered on water-oxidation catalysis using chemical oxidants. However, solar energy applications have drawn attention to electrochemical methods. In this paper, we examine the electrochemical behavior of the biomimetic water-oxidation catalyst [(H2O)(terpy)Mn(μ-O)2Mn(terpy)(H2O)](NO3)3 [terpy = 2,2′:6′,2′′-terpyridine] (1) in water under a variety of pH and buffered conditions and in the presence of acetate that binds to 1 in place of one of the terminal water ligands. These experiments show that 1 not only exhibits proton-coupled electron-transfer reactivity analogous to the OEC, but also may be capable of electrochemical oxidation of water to oxygen.

A synergistic effect between anatase and rutile TiO2 is known, in which the addition of rutile can remarkably enhance the photocatalytic activity of anatase in the degradation of organic contaminants. In this study, mixed-phase TiO2 nanocomposites consisting of anatase and rutile nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared for use as photoanodes in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) and were characterized by using UV-vis spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. The addition of 10–15% rutile significantly improved light harvesting and the overall solar conversion efficiency of anatase NPs in DSSCs. The underlying mechanism for the synergistic effect in DSSCs is now explored by using time-resolved terahertz spectroscopy. It is clearly demonstrated that photo-excited electrons injected into the rutile NPs can migrate to the conduction band of anatase NPs, enhancing the photocurrent and efficiency. Interfacial electron transfer from rutile to anatase, similar to that in heterogeneous photocatalysis, is proposed to account for the synergistic effect in DSSCs. Our results further suggest that the synergistic effect can be used to explain the beneficial effect of TiCl4 treatment on DSSC efficiency.

Primary alcohols can be coupled with secondary benzylic alcohols by an air-stable catalytic system involving terpyridine ruthenium or iridium complexes.

Interfacial electron transfer dynamics of a series of photosensitizers bound to TiO2via linkers of varying conjugation strength are explored by spectroscopic and computational techniques. Injection and recombination depend on the extent of conjugation in the linker, where the LUMO delocalization determines the injection dynamics but both the HOMO and HOMO−1 are involved in recombination.

An efficient synthetic protocol to functionalize the cyanoacrylic acid anchoring group of commercially available MK-2 dye with a highly water-stable hydroxamate anchoring group is described. Extensive characterization of this hydroxamate-modified dye (MK-2HA) reveals that the modification does not affect its favorable optoelectronic properties. Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) prepared with the MK-2HA dye attain improved efficiency (6.9%), relative to analogously prepared devices with commercial MK-2 and N719 dyes. The hydroxamate anchoring group also contributes to significantly increased water stability, with a decrease in the rate constant for dye desorption of MK-2HA relative to MK-2 in the presence of water by as much as 37.5%. In addition, the hydroxamate-anchored dye undergoes essentially no loss in DSSC efficiency and the external quantum efficiency improves when up to 20% water is purposefully added to the electrolyte. In contrast, devices prepared with the commercial dye suffer a 50% decline in efficiency under identical conditions, with a concomitant decrease in external quantum efficiency. Collectively, our results indicate that covalent functionalization of organic dyes with hydroxamate anchoring groups is a simple and efficient approach to improving the water stability of the dye–semiconductor interface and overall device durability.

A series of Cp*IrIII dimers have been synthesized to elucidate the mechanistic viability of radical oxo-coupling pathways in iridium-catalyzed O2 evolution. The oxidative stability of the precursors toward nanoparticle formation and their oxygen evolution activity have been investigated and compared to suitable monomeric analogues. We found that precursors bearing monodentate NHC ligands degraded to form nanoparticles (NPs), and accordingly their O2 evolution rates were not significantly influenced by their nuclearity or distance between the two metals in the dimeric precursors. A doubly chelating bis-pyridine–pyrazolide ligand provided an oxidation-resistant ligand framework that allowed a more meaningful comparison of catalytic performance of dimers with their corresponding monomers. With sodium periodate (NaIO4) as the oxidant, the dimers provided significantly lower O2 evolution rates per [Ir] than the monomer, suggesting a negative interaction instead of cooperativity in the catalytic cycle. Electrochemical analysis of the dimers further substantiates the notion that no radical oxyl-coupling pathways are accessible. We thus conclude that the alternative path, nucleophilic attack of water on high-valent Ir-oxo species, may be the preferred mechanistic pathway of water oxidation with these catalysts, and bimolecular oxo-coupling is not a valid mechanistic alternative as in the related ruthenium chemistry, at least in the present system.