Oil palm trunks (OPTs) are a potential source of sugars for bioethanol production, and so we determined the glucose, fructose, and sucrose contents of hot water extracts from OPTs. Samples of OPTs were obtained from different regions of the trunk, from trunks of palms of different ages (31-, 19-, and 15-year-old), and from fruiting and nonfruiting palms. The extractable sugar contents of the whole OPT and the upper and lower regions of each OPT were calculated. Our results indicated that the upper parts of OPTs should be used for bioethanol production because they yield higher concentrations of sugars than the lower parts do. To produce a highly concentrated glucose solution for bioethanol production, OPTs should be harvested as soon as production of palm oil has been completed and when new male flowers have appeared. If these suggestions are followed, then the estimated ethanol concentration after fermentation is 3.2% and the estimated ethanol production per harvested area is 3.5 kl/ha.

1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT) was used as the substrate for a degradation experiment with the white rot fungi Phlebia lindtneri GB-1027 and Phlebia brevispora TMIC34596, which are capable of degrading polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Pure culture of P. lindtneri and P. brevispora with DDT (25 μmol l−1) showed that 70 and 30% of DDT, respectively, disappeared in a low-nitrogen medium after a 21-day incubation period. The metabolites were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Both fungi metabolized DDT to 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDD), 2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)acetic acid (DDA) and 4,4-dichlorobenzophenone (DBP). Additionally, DDD was converted to DDA and DBP. DDA was converted to DBP and 4,4-dichlorobenzhydrol (DBH). While DBP was treated as substrate, DBH and three hydroxylated metabolites, including one dihydroxylated DBP and two different isomers of monohydroxylated DBH, were produced from fungal cultures, and these hydroxylated metabolites were efficiently inhibited by the addition of a cytochrome P-450 inhibitor, piperonyl butoxide. These results indicate that the white rot fungi P. lindtneri and P. brevispora can degrade DBP/DBH through hydroxylation of the aromatic ring. Moreover, the single-ring aromatic metabolites, such as 4-chlorobenzaldehyde, 4-chlorobenzyl alcohol and 4-chlorobenzoic acid, were found as metabolic products of all substrate, demonstrating that the cleavage reaction of the aliphatic-aryl carbon bond occurs in the biodegradation process of DDT by white rot fungi.

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men in Western countries, with a high incidence of bone metastasis. Ganoderic acid DM, with 5α-reductase inhibitory and androgen receptor (AR) binding activity, isolated from the ethanol extracts of Ganoderma lucidum, can inhibit prostate cancer cell growth and block osteoclastogenesis.

Increased osteoclastic bone resorption plays a central role in the pathogenesis of many bone diseases, and osteoclast inhibitors are the most widely used treatments for these diseases. Ginsenosides, the main component of ginseng, have been known for their medicinal effects such as anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative activities. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of ginsenosides (ginsenoside 20(R)-Rh2 and ginsenoside 20(S)-Rh2) on osteoclastgenesis using RAW264 cells in vitro. Only ginsenoside 20(R)-Rh2 showed selective osteoclastgenesis inhibitory activity without any cytotoxicity up to 100 μM. These results implied that the stereochemistry of the hydroxyl group at C-20 may play an important role in selective osteoclastgenesis inhibitory activity.Ginsenoside 20(R)-Rh2 and ginsenoside 20(S)-Rh2 showed a significant inhibitory effect on osteoclast differentiation. Only ginsenoside 20(R)-Rh2 showed no cytotoxicity to osteoclast proliferation. 20(R)-Hydroxylation of the aliphatic side chain of Rh2 could be the main target in producing anti-osteoclast agent.

The ethanol extract from the fruiting body of Ganoderma lucidum was tested for its estrogen-like activity by using the cell proliferation assay (MCF-7 cells, human breast cancer cells), as well as the estrogen receptor binding assay, and pS2 mRNA expression assay in MCF-7 cells in vitro and uterotrophic assay in vivo. The ethanol extract of G. lucidum showed signifi cant positive effects on the proliferation of MCF-7 cells. This proliferation effect is related to the estrogenic activity of G. lucidum, because this proliferation activity was inhibited by the addition of the antiestrogenic compound ICI 182,780. The ability to bind to human estrogen receptors (hERs) α and β of the ethanol extract of G. lucidum was confi rmed by using the coactivator-bacterial alkaline phosphatase system. ER-dependent cell responsibilities were investigated by examining the regulation of gene transcription for pS2 in MCF-7 cells. Our results demonstrated that the pS2 mRNA levels are significantly increased by the ethanol extract of G. lucidum via an estrogen-like manner. Additionally, young rats that received the ethanol extract of G. lucidum (200 mg/kg per day) for 3 days showed a signifi cant increase (growth approximately twofold compared with the control group) in uterine weight after each treatment, which supports the estrogen-like activity of the ethanol extract of G. lucidum in vivo. It was concluded that the ethanol extract of G. lucidum showed estrogen-like activity, which may be useful in regulating hormone levels to treat related diseases such as osteoporosis if safety is fully guaranteed.

The persistent insecticide DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane) has been widely used for pest control in the management of mosquito-borne malaria and is still used for that purpose in some tropical countries. Considering the potential for negative effects due to DDT contamination, it is necessary to determine effective methods of remediation. Several methods have been used to degrade or transform DDT into less toxic compounds. Bacteria and white-rot fungi (WRF) have been shown to enhance the degradation process in soil using both pure and mixed cultures. Recently, a biological approach has been used as an environmentally-friendly treatment, using new biological sources to degrade DDT, e.g. brown-rot fungi (BRF), cattle manure compost (CMC) and spent mushroom waste (SMW). In this review, the abilities of BRF, CMC and SMW to degrade DDT are discussed, including the mechanisms and degradation pathways. Furthermore, application of these sources to contaminated soil is also described. The review discusses which is the best source for bioremediation of DDT.Highlights► Recently, a biological approach has been used as an environmentally-friendly treatment. ► Brown-rot fungi, cattle manure compost, and spent mushroom wastes were used to degrade DDT. ► The abilities of them to degrade DDT are discussed. ► The mechanisms, degradation pathways, and application in contaminated soil are also described. ► The review discusses which is the best source for bioremediation of DDT.

In this study, the ability of the brown-rot fungi (BRF) Fomitopsis pinicola and Daedalea dickinsii to degrade DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane) was investigated. F. pinicola and D. dickinsii degraded approximately 63% and 47% of total DDT in potato dextrose broth (PDB) medium, respectively. Degradation of DDT by D. dickinsii resulted in several metabolic products; DDD (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane), DDE (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethylene), and DDMU (1-chloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethylene), whereas degradation by F. pinicola produced only one metabolic product, DDD. Investigation was done to find out whether the Fenton reaction was involved in the degradation process. More DDT was degraded in medium lacking FeSO4 than in that containing FeSO4, suggesting that these fungi lack the benzoquinone-driven Fenton reaction cycle system. In addition, F. pinicola and D. dickinsii produced only very low levels of hydroxyl radicals (1.2 and 5.1 μM, respectively), which provides further evidence that these fungi lack the Fenton reaction cycle system. The addition of mannitol as a hydroxyl radical scavenger did not inhibit DDT degradation. Hydroxyl radical production increased when the medium was supplemented with Fe2+. Higher levels of hydroxyl radicals enhanced DDT degradation by D. dickinsii, but not by F. pinicola. These results indicate that F. pinicola and D. dickinsii have different mechanisms for degrading DDT from that reported for the BRF Gloeophyllum trabeum, in which the Fenton reaction is an important factor in DDT degradation.

To examine the bioremediation potential of Phlebia brevispora in dioxin-contaminated soil, the fungus was inoculated into autoclaved soil that was contaminated with 2,7-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,7-DCDD) or 1,3,6,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1,3,6,8-TCDD). Three types of soils, organic-rich soil (Andosol), organic-poor soil (Granitic Regosols), and paddy soil, were used for the construction of artificially contaminated soil to understand the influence of the soil property on fungal growth and dioxin degradation ability. Under a solid-state condition, although the growth of the fungus improved in organic-rich soil, the degradation of 2,7-DCDD was inhibited. Although the degradation of 1,3,6,8-TCDD under a solid-state condition was inhibited severely, 1,3,6,8-TCDD degradation was observed under a slurry-state condition in organic-poor soil. In the case of organic-rich soil, an increase in water content improved the 1,3,6,8-TCDD degradation efficiency. When the historically contaminated paddy soil was treated with P. brevispora under a slurry-state condition, 1,3,6,8-TCDD as the main contaminant degraded 50% after 90 d incubation.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the ability of cattle manure compost (CMC) to degrade 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDT). DDT was degraded during composting and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDD) was detected as a metabolic product. Degradation of DDT at 60 °C was the most effective of all the stages of composting. Fourteen strains of fungi were isolated and identified from CMC, and most of them were closely related to Mucor circinelloides and Galactomyces geotrichum. These fungi demonstrated a high ability to degrade DDT both at 30 and 60 °C in potato dextrose broth (PDB) medium. DDD and 4,4-dichlorobenzophenone (DBP) were detected as metabolic products. Degradation of DDT-contaminated soil was also investigated. Composting materials in the mesophilic stage exhibited the highest ability to degrade DDT in un-sterilized (USL) contaminated soil during a 28 d incubation period. The isolated fungi possessed the ability to degrade DDT in sterilized (SL) and un-sterilized (USL) soils. These results indicated that CMC contains fungi that can be potentially used for bioremediation in DDT-contaminated environments.

The ability of brown-rot fungi (BRF) to eliminate DDT in artificially and historically contaminated soil was investigated to determine whether the BRF would be suitable for the bioremediation of DDT in soil. Gloeophyllum trabeum, Fomitopsis pinicola and Daedalea dickinsii showed an ability to eliminate DDT in artificially contaminated sterilized (SL) and un-sterilized (USL) soils. The addition of Fe2+ to the soil system enhanced the ability of some BRF to eliminate DDT. In the contaminated SL soil, the DDT was eliminated by approximately 41%, 9% and 15% by G. trabeum, F. pinicola and D. dickinsii, respectively. Compared with the controls, in the USL soil approximately 43%, 29% and 32% of DDT was eliminated and approximately 20%, 9% and 26% of DDD (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane) was detected as a metabolic product with G. trabeum, F. pinicola and D. dickinsii, respectively. Of the BRF, G. trabeum demonstrated the greatest ability to eliminate DDT both in the SL and USL soils. G. trabeum was applied to a historically contaminated soil which had a DDT concentration more than three times the artificially contaminated soil. G. trabeum remediated about 64% of the initial DDT with the addition of Fe2+. There were no significant differences in the results with or without the addition of Fe2+, indicating that G. trabeum can be used directly for the degradation of DDT in soil without any other additional treatment. This study identified that G. trabeum is the most promising BRF for use in the bioremediation of DDT contaminated soil.Highlights► Brown-rot fungi have a good ability to eliminate DDT in contaminated soil. ► The addition of Fe2+ enhanced the ability of BRF to eliminate DDT. ► Gloeophyllum trabeum demonstrated the greatest ability to eliminate DDT. ► G. trabeum remediated 64% of the initial DDT in historically contaminated soil. ► G. trabeum is suitable for use in bioremediation of DDT contaminated soil.

The ability of spent mushroom waste (SMW) from Pleurotus ostreatus to degrade 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDT) was investigated. DDT was degraded by 48% during a 28 d incubation and 5.1% of the DDT was mineralized during a 56 d incubation by SMW from P. ostreatus. The degradation potential in artificial DDT-contaminated soil was also investigated. The SMW from P. ostreatus degraded the DDT by 40% and 80% during a 28 d incubation in sterilized (SL) and un-sterilized (USL) soils, respectively. [U-14C]DDT was mineralized by 5.1% and 8.0% during a 56 d incubation in SL and USL soils, respectively. These results indicate that SMW from P. ostreatus is a medium which can be potentially used for bioremediation in DDT-contaminated environments.

There is very limited information on the biotransformation of organochlorine pesticide chlordane by microorganisms, and no systematic study on the metabolic products and pathways for chlordane transformation by wood-rot fungi has been conducted. In this study, trans-chlordane was metabolized with the wood-rot fungi species Phlebia lindtneri, Phlebia brevispora and Phlebia aurea, which are capable of degrading polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and heptachlor epoxide. At the end of 42 days of incubation, over 50% of trans-chlordane was degraded by the fungal treatments in pure cultures. These fungi transformed trans-chlordane to at least eleven metabolites including a large amount of hydroxylated products such as 3-hydroxychlordane, chlordene chlorohydrin, heptachlor diol, monohydroxychlordene and dihydroxychlordene. P. lindtneri particularly can metabolize oxychlordane, a recalcitrant epoxide product of chlordane, into a hydroxylated product through substitution of chlorine atom by hydroxyl group. The present results suggest that hydroxylation reactions play an important role in the metabolism of trans-chlordane by these Phlebia species. Additionally, transformation of trans-chlordane and production of hydroxylated metabolites were efficiently inhibited by the addition of cytochrome P450 inhibitors, piperonyl butoxide and 1-aminobenzotriazole, demonstrating that fungal cytochrome P450 enzymes are involved in some steps of trans-chlordane metabolism, particularly in the hydroxylation process.