Mass concentrations of soluble trace metals and size, number, and mixing properties of nanometal particles in clouds determine their toxicity to ecosystems. Cloud water was found to be acidic, with a pH of 3.52, at Mt. Lu (elevation 1,165 m) in an acid precipitation region in South China. A combination of Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICPMS) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) for the first time demonstrates that the soluble metal concentrations and solid metal particle number are surprisingly high in acid clouds at Mt. Lu, where daily concentrations of SO2, NO2, and PM10 are 18 μg m–3, 7 μg m–3, and 22 μg m–3. The soluble metals in cloudwater with the highest concentrations were zinc (Zn, 200 μg L–1), iron (Fe, 88 μg L–1), and lead (Pb, 77 μg L–1). TEM reveals that 76% of cloud residues include metal particles that range from 50 nm to 1 μm diameter with a median diameter of 250 nm. Four major metal-associated particle types are Pb-rich (35%), fly ash (27%), Fe-rich (23%), and Zn-rich (15%). Elemental mapping shows that minor soluble metals are distributed within sulfates of cloud residues. Emissions of fine metal particles from large, nonferrous industries and coal-fired power plants with tall stacks were transported upward to this high elevation. Our results suggest that the abundant trace metals in clouds aggravate the impacts of acid clouds or associated precipitation on the ecosystem and human health.

Precipitation chemistry programs in different regions of the world have different quality control limits for ion balance parameter IPD in wet deposition monitoring (R). The range of R values was calculated by assuming sample rainwater models in this paper. It was found that R was influenced by the inorganic ion types, total ion concentrations (IS) and the accuracy of the measurements (ai). R was defined and calculated as a function of ai and ion concentration Ci. R values of different types of wet deposition (including ocean type, continent type and combined oceanic and continental deposition) were different. There were also differences between the samples of the same type if the samples had different total ion concentrations. When IS>100 μeq/L, the ranges of R of ocean type deposition, continent type deposition and combined oceanic and continental deposition were 5∼7%, 5∼9% and 5∼11%, respectively. When IS<50 μeq/L, if ai was 100%, the range of R was 33∼71% because of the lower accuracy. It was also found that R of each criterion was in the range of R as calculated in this paper when IS≥50 μeq/L, but when IS<50 μeq/L, the criteria varied greatly in their R values.