Multivalent protein–carbohydrate interactions initiate the first contacts between virus/bacteria and target cells, which ultimately lead to infection. Understanding the structures and binding modes involved is vital to the design of specific, potent multivalent inhibitors. However, the lack of structural information on such flexible, complex, and multimeric cell surface membrane proteins has often hampered such endeavors. Herein, we report that quantum dots (QDs) displayed with a dense array of mono-/disaccharides are powerful probes for multivalent protein–glycan interactions. Using a pair of closely related tetrameric lectins, DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR, which bind to the HIV and Ebola virus glycoproteins (EBOV-GP) to augment viral entry and infect target cells, we show that such QDs efficiently dissect the different DC-SIGN/R-glycan binding modes (tetra-/di-/monovalent) through a combination of multimodal readouts: Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), hydrodynamic size measurement, and transmission electron microscopy imaging. We also report a new QD-FRET method for quantifying QD-DC-SIGN/R binding affinity, revealing that DC-SIGN binds to the QD >100-fold tighter than does DC-SIGNR. This result is consistent with DC-SIGN’s higher trans-infection efficiency of some HIV strains over DC-SIGNR. Finally, we show that the QDs potently inhibit DC-SIGN-mediated enhancement of EBOV-GP-driven transduction of target cells with IC50 values down to 0.7 nM, matching well to their DC-SIGN binding constant (apparent Kd = 0.6 nM) measured by FRET. These results suggest that the glycan-QDs are powerful multifunctional probes for dissecting multivalent protein–ligand recognition and predicting glyconanoparticle inhibition of virus infection at the cellular level.

Ribonuclease-A (RNase-A) encapsulated PbS quantum dots (RNase-A@PbS Qdots) which emit in the second near-infrared biological window (NIR-II, ca. 1000–1400 nm) are rapidly synthesized under microwave heating. Photoluminescence (PL) spectra of the Qdots can be tuned across the entire NIR-II range by simply controlling synthesis temperature. The size and morphology of the Qdots are examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Quantum yield (Φf) measurement confirms that the prepared Qdots are one of the brightest water-soluble NIR-II emitters for in vivo imaging. Their high Φf (∼17.3%) and peak emission at ∼1300 nm ensure deep optical penetration to muscle tissues (up to 1.5 cm) and excellent imaging contrast at an extremely low threshold dose of ∼5.2 pmol (∼1 μg) per mouse. Importantly, this protein coated Qdot displays no signs of toxicity toward model neuron, normal, and cancer cells in vitro. In addition, the animal’s metabolism results in thorough elimination of intravenously injected Qdots from the body within several days via the reticuloendothelial system (RES), which minimizes potential long-term toxicity in vivo from possible release of lead content. With a combination of attractive properties of high brightness, robust photostability, and excellent biocompatibility, this new NIR-II emitting Qdot is highly promising in accurate disease screening and diagnostic applications.

A multifunctional anti-cancer nanomedicine based on a biotin–poly(ethylene glycol)–poly(curcumin-dithio dipropionic acid) (Biotin–PEG–PCDA) polymeric nanocarrier loaded with paclitaxel (PTX), magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and quantum dots (QDs) is developed. It combines advantageous properties of efficient targeted delivery and uptake (via biotin and MNP), intracellular responsive release (via cleavable PCDA polymer), fluorescence imaging (via QD) and combined PTX-curcumin dual-drug treatment, allowing for overcoming drug resistance mechanisms of model multidrug resistant breast cancer cells (MCF-7/ADR). The PTX/MNPs/QDs@Biotin–PEG–PCDA nanoparticles are highly stable under physiological conditions, but are quickly disassembled to release their drug load in the presence of 10 mM glutathione (GSH). The nanoparticles show high uptake by tumour cells from a combined effect of magnet targeting and biotin receptor-mediated internalization. Moreover, curcumin, an intracellularly cleaved product of PCDA, can effectively down regulate the expression of drug efflux transporters such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) to increase PTX accumulation within target cancer cells, thereby enhancing PTX induced cytotoxicity and therapeutic efficacy against MCF-7/ADR cells. Taken together, this novel tumour-targeting and traceable multifunctional nanomedicine is highly effective against model MDR cancer at the cellular level.

A thiolated pH-responsive DNA conjugated gold nanorod (GNR) was developed as a multifunctional nanocarrier for targeted, pH-and near infrared (NIR) radiation dual-stimuli triggered drug delivery. It was further passivated by a thiolated poly(ethylene glycol)-biotin to improve its cancer targeting ability by specific binding to cancer cell over-expressed biotin receptors. Doxorubicin (DOX), a widely used clinical anticancer drug, was conveniently loaded into nanocarrier by intercalating inside the double-stranded pH-responsive DNAs on the GNR surface to complete the construction of the multifunctional nanomedicine. The nanomedicine can rapidly and effectively release its DOX payload triggered by an acidic pH environment (pH ~ 5) and/or applying an 808 nm NIR laser radiation. Compared to free DOX, the biotin-modified nanomedicine displayed greatly increased cell uptake and significantly reduced drug efflux by model multidrug resistant (MDR) breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7/ADR). The application of NIR radiation further increased the DOX release and facilitated its nuclear accumulation. As a result, this new DNA-GNR based multifunctional nanomedicine exerted greatly increased potency (~ 67 fold) against the MDR cancer cells over free DOX.A thiolated pH-responsive DNA conjugated gold nanorod (GNR) was developed as a multifunctional nanocarrier for targeted, pH-and near infrared (NIR) radiation dual-stimuli triggered anti-cancer drug delivery.

Correction for ‘A pH-driven, reconfigurable DNA nanotriangle’ by Wenxing Wang et al., Chem. Commun., 2009, 824–826.

Self-assembled micelles of amphiphilic PEG–rapamycin conjugates loaded with paclitaxel have been developed for co-delivery and simultaneous intracellular release of paclitaxel and rapamycin, bypassing the cancer cell drug resistant mechanism and maximising the synergy of dual-drug combinational therapy. This novel nanomedicine offers 20-fold improved potency over free paclitaxel against a model multidrug resistant human breast cancer cell.

Over the past 10 years, polyvalent DNA–gold nanoparticle (DNA–GNP) conjugate has been demonstrated as an efficient, universal nanocarrier for drug and gene delivery with high uptake by over 50 different types of primary and cancer cell lines. A barrier limiting its in vivo effectiveness is limited resistance to nuclease degradation and nonspecific interaction with blood serum contents. Herein we show that terminal PEGylation of the complementary DNA strand hybridized to a polyvalent DNA–GNP conjugate can eliminate nonspecific adsorption of serum proteins and greatly increases its resistance against DNase I-based degradation. The PEGylated DNA–GNP conjugate still retains a high cell uptake property, making it an attractive intracellular delivery nanocarrier for DNA binding reagents. We show that it can be used for successful intracellular delivery of doxorubicin, a widely used clinical cancer chemotherapeutic drug. Moreover, it can be used for efficient delivery of some cell-membrane-impermeable reagents such as propidium iodide (a DNA intercalating fluorescent dye currently limited to the use of staining dead cells only) and a diruthenium complex (a DNA groove binder), for successful staining of live cells.Keywords: DNA intercalation reagent; DNase resistance; DNA−gold nanoparticle conjugate; drug delivery; PEGylation

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) constitute the most common types of genetic variations in the human genome. A number of SNPs have been linked to the development of life threatening diseases including cancer, cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative diseases. The ability for ultrasensitive and accurate detection of low abundant disease-related SNPs in bodily fluids (e.g. blood, serum, etc.) holds a significant value in the development of non-invasive future biodiagnostic tools. Over the past two decades, nanomaterials have been utilized in a myriad of biosensing applications due to their ability of detecting extremely low quantities of biologically important biomarkers with high sensitivity and accuracy. Of particular interest is the application of such technologies in the detection of SNPs. The use of various nanomaterials, coupled with different powerful signal amplification strategies, has paved the way for a new generation of ultrasensitive SNP biodiagnostic assays. Over the past few years, several ultrasensitive SNP biosensors capable of detecting specific targets down to the ultra-low regimes (ca. aM and below) and therefore holding great promises for early clinical diagnosis of diseases have been developed. This mini review will highlight some of the most recent, significant advances in nanomaterial-based ultrasensitive SNP sensing technologies capable of detecting specific targets on the attomolar (10−18 M) regime or below. In particular, the design of novel, powerful signal amplification strategies that hold the key to the ultrasensitivity is highlighted.

Controlled-release systems capable of responding to external stimuli and/or unique internal environments have received great interests in site-specific gene and/or drug delivery. In this work, a functionalized gene nanocarrier for dual-stimuli triggered cytosolic gene delivery is developed and showing high gene delivery efficacy with low cytotoxicity. The nanocarrier is prepared by conjugating gold nanorod (GNR) with multiple disulfide cross-linked short PEIs to harness the advantageous properties of GNR based near infrared (NIR) laser induced photothermal heating and intracellular stimuli-triggered degradability of disulfide cross-linked short PEIs (DSPEI). The DSPEI is further grafted with a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) section to afford high carrier stability in cell cultures and a terminal RGD peptide for specific targeting of cancer cells. The nanocarrier is found to effectively condense plasmid DNA to form a highly stable GNR-DSPEI-PEG-RGD/DNA complex with tumor cell-targeting ability that can be efficiently uptaken by cancer cells. Moreover, the loaded genes can be effectively released from the complex triggered by the high intracellular glutathione content and/or by photothermal effect of NIR irradiation at 808 nm. Interestingly, the GNRs-based complex can easily escape from intracellular endo-/lyso-somal compartments and release the gene load into the cytosol upon exposure to NIR irradiation, resulting in significantly improved gene transfection efficiency. Our new gene carrier exhibits high gene transfection efficiency, comparable to or even better than that of high MW PEIs, but with a much lower cytotoxicity. Additionally, neither the GNR-based carrier nor the laser treatment shows any significant evidence of cytotoxicity. This work demonstrates a promising strategy for intracellular stimuli triggered, photothermal controllable gene delivery system, which can be further applied to many other nanomedicine fields.

This paper reports the synthesis of monodisperse gold nanorods (GNRs) via a simple seeded growth approach in the presence of different aromatic additives, such as 7-bromo-3-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid (7-BrHNA), 3-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid (HNA), 5-bromosalicylic acid (5-BrSA), salicylic acid (SA), or phenol (PhOH). Effects of the aromatic additives and hydrochloric acid (HCl) on the structure and optical properties of the synthesized GNRs were investigated. The longitudinal surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) peak wavelength of the resulting GNRs was found to be dependent on the aromatic additive in the following sequence: 5-BrSA (778 nm) > 7-BrHNA (706 nm) > SA (688 nm) > HNA (676 nm) > PhOH (638 nm) without the addition of HCl, but this was changed to 7-BrHNA (920 nm) > SA (890 nm) > HNA (872 nm) > PhOH (858 nm) > 5-BrSA (816 nm) or 7-BrHNA (1,005 nm) > PhOH (995 nm) > SA (990 nm) > HNA (980 nm) > 5-BrSA (815 nm) with the addition of HCl or HNO3, respectively. The LSPR peak wavelength was increased with the increasing concentration of 7-BrHNA without HCl addition; however, there was a maximum LSPR peak wavelength when HCl was added. Interestingly, the LSPR peak wavelength was also increased with the amount of HCl added. The results presented here thus established a simple approach to synthesize monodisperse GNRs of different LSPR wavelengths.

We report herein the successful preparation of a compact and functional CdSe–ZnS core–shell quantum dot (QD)–DNA conjugate via highly efficient copper-free “click chemistry” (CFCC) between a dihydro-lipoic acid–polyethylene glycol–azide (DHLA–PEG–N3) capped QD and a cyclooctyne modified DNA. This represents an excellent balance between the requirements of high sensitivity, robustness and specificity for the QD-FRET (Förster resonance energy transfer) based sensor as confirmed by a detailed FRET analysis on the QD–DNA conjugate, yielding a relatively short donor–acceptor distance of ∼5.8 nm. We show that this CFCC clicked QD–DNA conjugate is not only able to retain the native fluorescence quantum yield (QY) of the parent DHLA–PEG–N3 capped QD, but also well-suited for robust and specific biosensing; it can directly quantitate, at the pM level, both labelled and unlabelled complementary DNA probes with a good SNP (single-nucleotide polymorphism) discrimination ability in complex media, e.g. 10% human serum via target-binding induced FRET changes between the QD donor and the dye acceptor. Furthermore, this sensor has also been successfully exploited for the detection, at the pM level, of a specific protein target (thrombin) via the encoded anti-thrombin aptamer sequence in the QD–DNA conjugate.

We report herein the development of a highly sensitive and selective approach for label-free DNA detection by combining target-recycled ligation (TRL), magnetic nanoparticle assisted target capture/separation, and efficient enzymatic amplification. We show that our approach can detect as little as 30 amol (600 fM in 50 μL) of unlabelled single-stranded DNA targets and offer an exquisitely high discrimination ratio (up to >380 fold with background correction) between a perfect-match cancer mutant and its single-base mismatch (wild-type) DNA target. Furthermore, it can quantitate the rare cancer mutant (KRAS codon 12) in a large excess of coexisting wild-type DNAs down to 0.75%. This sensor appears to be well-suited for sensitive SNP detection and a wide range of DNA mutation based diagnostic applications.

Ultra-small gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) have unique size-dependent optical, electrical and chemical properties. They have emerged as a new nanomaterial with broad applications in optoelectronics, catalysis, biosensing, and bioimaging. Several strategies have been exploited to prepare AuNCs of different “magic number” sizes, using different templates e.g. dendrimers, polyethyleneimines, peptides, and more recently, proteins. Notwithstanding, almost all bio-template-protected AuNCs reported so far exhibit fairly low fluorescence quantum yields (QYs), typically <5%, which is especially true for AuNCs prepared using the protein templates. In this paper, we report a facile, one-pot aqueous synthesis of highly fluorescent AuNCs using bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A (RNase-A) as the bio-template. The as-prepared AuNCs not only fluoresce strongly at the near-infrared (NIR) region (λem = 682 nm), but also exhibit an elevated QY of ∼12%. Additionally, the RNase-A-encapsulated AuNC (RNase-A-AuNC) displays an exceptionally large Stokes shift of ∼210 nm as well as a single dominant fluorescence lifetime of ∼1.5 μs, about three orders of magnitude longer than biological autofluorescence. Furthermore, by coupling vitamin B12 (VB12) to the RNase-A-AuNC, we develop a multifunctional nanoplatform that is suitable for simultaneous targeting and imaging of cancer at the cellular level using Caco-2 cell lines as an in vitro model. Since VB12 has effective uptake pathways in the digestive system, this nanoplatform may have potential for targeted oral drug delivery in vivo.

We report herein the development of a simple, sensitive colorimetric magnetic nanoparticle (MNP)–enzyme-based DNA sandwich assay that is suitable for simultaneous, label-free quantitation of two DNA targets down to 50 fM level. It can also effectively discriminate single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes associated with human cancers (KRAS codon 12/13 SNPs). This assay uses a pair of specific DNA probes, one being covalently conjugated to an MNP for target capture and the other being linked to an enzyme for signal amplification, to sandwich a DNA target, allowing for convenient magnetic separation and subsequent efficient enzymatic signal amplification for high sensitivity. Careful optimization of the MNP surfaces and assay conditions greatly reduced the background, allowing for sensitive, specific detection of as little as 5 amol (50 fM in 100 μL) of target DNA. Moreover, this sensor is robust, it can effectively discriminate cancer-specific SNPs against the wild-type noncancer target, and it works efficiently in 10% human serum. Furthermore, this sensor can simultaneously quantitate two different DNA targets by using two pairs of unique capture- and signal-DNA probes specific for each target. This general, simple, and sensitive DNA sensor appears to be well-suited for a wide range of genetics-based biosensing and diagnostic applications.

We report herein the development of a novel quantum dot-intercalating dye dual-donor FRET system that can be used for sensitive detection of pM level DNA and protein targets.

Herein we report the development of a highly active, magnetically retrievable and reusable biocatalyst using multilayer enzyme coupled-magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) prepared by layer-by-layer assembly using two well-studied enzymes, horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and glucose oxidase (GOX), as a model enzyme system. We show that by combining the use of a biocompatible linker as well as biospecific immobilisation, the first layer enzyme in our HRP1–MNP system retains the native activity of the enzyme in solution, and the overall catalytic activity of the multilayer enzyme system, HRPx–MNP, increases linearly with the increasing number of enzyme layers. Furthermore, the HRPx–MNP system can be conveniently retrieved by using an external magnetic field and reused for 10 consecutive cycles without apparent reduction of catalytic activity. We also report the development of a novel coupled bienzyme, GOX/HRPx–MNP, system that can perform bi-enzymatic reactions to couple the colourless GOX-catalyzed reaction to the chromophoric HRP-catalyzed reaction viaH2O2 production. This model bienzyme–MNP system can be used for simple, rapid colorimetric quantification of micromolar glucose.

Herein we report the synthesis of a new chelating dendritic ligand (CDL) and its use in the preparation a compact, stable and water-soluble quantum dot (QD), and further development of specific DNA sensor. The CDL, which contains a chelative dihydrolipoic acid moiety for strong QD surface anchoring and four dendritic carboxylic acid groups, provides a stable, compact and entangled hydrophilic coating around the QD that significantly increases the stability of the resulting water-soluble QD. A CDL-capped CdSe/ZnS core/shell QD (CDL-QD) has stronger fluorescence than that capped by a monodendate single-chain thiol, 3-mercapto-propionic acid (MPA-QD). In addition, the fluorescence of the CDL-QD can be enhanced by 2.5-fold by treatments with Zn2+ or S2− ions, presumably due to effective passivation of the surface defects. This level of fluorescence enhancement obtained for the CDL-QD is much greater than that for the MPA-QD. Further, by coupling a short single-stranded DNA target to the QD via the CDL carboxylic acid group, a functional QD-DNA conjugate that can resist non-specific adsorption and hybridize quickly to its complementary DNA probe has been obtained. This functional QD-DNA conjugate is suitable for specific quantification of short, labelled complementary probes at the low DNA probe:QD copy numbers via a QD-sensitised dye fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) response with 500 pM sensitivity on a conventional fluorimeter.

We report herein the study of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between a CdSe/ZnS core/shell quantum dot (QD) capped with three different small-molecule ligands, 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA), glutathione (GSH), and dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA), and a hexa-histidine (His6)-tagged fluorescent protein, mCherry (FP). The Förster radius (R0) and the corresponding donor–acceptor distances (r) for each of the QD–FP FRET systems were evaluated by using the Förster dipole–dipole interaction formula. Interestingly, both the FRET efficiency (E) and r were found to be strongly dependent on the capping small-molecule ligands on the QD surface, where E ≈ 85% was obtained at a FP:QD copy number of 2:1 for the MPA capped QD, while that for the DHLA capped QD was <25% under the same conditions. A molecular model was proposed to explain the possible reasons behind these observations. The dissociation constants (Kds) and kinetics of the self-assembled QD–FP systems were also evaluated. Results show that the QD–FP self-assembly process is fast (completes in minutes at low nM concentrations), strong (with Kd ≈ 1 nM) and positively cooperative (with the Hill coefficient n > 1), suggesting that the QD–His6-tagged biomolecule self-assembly is a facile, effective approach for making compact QD-bioconjugates which may have a wide range of sensing and biomedical applications.

A simple and robust DNA nanotriangle that can be conveniently reconfigured by environmental pH changes is demonstrated.

Effective in vivo fluorescence imaging for cancer screening and diagnostics requires bright and biocompatible fluorophores whose emission can effectively penetrate biological tissues. Recent studies have confirmed that the second near-infrared window (NIR-II, 1000–1400 nm) is the most sensitive spectral range for in vivo imaging due to ultralow tissue absorption and autofluorescence. We report herein a facile synthesis of Ag2S quantum dots (QDs) that emit at ∼1100 nm using β-lactoglobulin (β-LG) as a biological template. The β-LG protein coating improves water-solubility, faciliates rapid biodistribution and reduces in vivo toxicity of the QDs. Compared to other currently used NIR emitters, β-LG capped Ag2S QDs exhibit superior photostability and biocompatibility, making them promising probes for in vivo NIR-II imaging.

A multifunctional anti-cancer nanomedicine based on a biotin–poly(ethylene glycol)–poly(curcumin-dithio dipropionic acid) (Biotin–PEG–PCDA) polymeric nanocarrier loaded with paclitaxel (PTX), magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and quantum dots (QDs) is developed. It combines advantageous properties of efficient targeted delivery and uptake (via biotin and MNP), intracellular responsive release (via cleavable PCDA polymer), fluorescence imaging (via QD) and combined PTX-curcumin dual-drug treatment, allowing for overcoming drug resistance mechanisms of model multidrug resistant breast cancer cells (MCF-7/ADR). The PTX/MNPs/QDs@Biotin–PEG–PCDA nanoparticles are highly stable under physiological conditions, but are quickly disassembled to release their drug load in the presence of 10 mM glutathione (GSH). The nanoparticles show high uptake by tumour cells from a combined effect of magnet targeting and biotin receptor-mediated internalization. Moreover, curcumin, an intracellularly cleaved product of PCDA, can effectively down regulate the expression of drug efflux transporters such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) to increase PTX accumulation within target cancer cells, thereby enhancing PTX induced cytotoxicity and therapeutic efficacy against MCF-7/ADR cells. Taken together, this novel tumour-targeting and traceable multifunctional nanomedicine is highly effective against model MDR cancer at the cellular level.

We report herein the study of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between a CdSe/ZnS core/shell quantum dot (QD) capped with three different small-molecule ligands, 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA), glutathione (GSH), and dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA), and a hexa-histidine (His6)-tagged fluorescent protein, mCherry (FP). The Förster radius (R0) and the corresponding donor–acceptor distances (r) for each of the QD–FP FRET systems were evaluated by using the Förster dipole–dipole interaction formula. Interestingly, both the FRET efficiency (E) and r were found to be strongly dependent on the capping small-molecule ligands on the QD surface, where E ≈ 85% was obtained at a FP:QD copy number of 2:1 for the MPA capped QD, while that for the DHLA capped QD was <25% under the same conditions. A molecular model was proposed to explain the possible reasons behind these observations. The dissociation constants (Kds) and kinetics of the self-assembled QD–FP systems were also evaluated. Results show that the QD–FP self-assembly process is fast (completes in minutes at low nM concentrations), strong (with Kd ≈ 1 nM) and positively cooperative (with the Hill coefficient n > 1), suggesting that the QD–His6-tagged biomolecule self-assembly is a facile, effective approach for making compact QD-bioconjugates which may have a wide range of sensing and biomedical applications.

We report herein the development of a novel quantum dot-intercalating dye dual-donor FRET system that can be used for sensitive detection of pM level DNA and protein targets.

Correction for ‘A pH-driven, reconfigurable DNA nanotriangle’ by Wenxing Wang et al., Chem. Commun., 2009, 824–826.

Self-assembled micelles of amphiphilic PEG–rapamycin conjugates loaded with paclitaxel have been developed for co-delivery and simultaneous intracellular release of paclitaxel and rapamycin, bypassing the cancer cell drug resistant mechanism and maximising the synergy of dual-drug combinational therapy. This novel nanomedicine offers 20-fold improved potency over free paclitaxel against a model multidrug resistant human breast cancer cell.

A simple and robust DNA nanotriangle that can be conveniently reconfigured by environmental pH changes is demonstrated.