A computational investigation of the intermolecular hydrophosphination of styrene and 2-vinylpyridine, catalyzed by the heteroleptic β-diketiminato-stabilized calcium complex [(PhNC(Me)CHC(Me)NPh)CaPPh2], is presented. Alkene insertion does not proceed via the traditional route as proposed by experimental and theoretical research related to intermolecular hydroamination catalyzed by alkaline earth or lanthanide complexes. In contrast, for the hydrophosphination mechanism, insertion proceeds via outer sphere, conjugative addition where there is no direct interaction of Ca with the vinyl functionality. Following the initial rate-determining alkene insertion, two distinct mechanisms emerge, protonolysis or polymerization. Polymerization of styrene is energetically less favorable than protonolysis, whereas the reverse is determined for 2-vinylpyridine, thereby providing strong evidence of outcomes observed experimentally. The vinylarene ring is important as it allows for preferential coordination of the unsaturated substrate through numerous noncovalent Ca···π, CH···π, and Ca ← E (E = P or N) interactions; moreover, the vinylarene ring counteracts unfavorable charge localization within the activated transition state. The additional stability of the Ca ← N over Ca ← P dative interaction in vinylpyridine provides a rationalization for the experimentally observed enhanced reactivity of vinylpyridine, particularly in the context of the almost identical local alkene insertion barriers. Previously, little emphasis has been placed on the involvement of noncovalent interactions; however, our calculations reveal that Ca···π, CH···π, and Ca ← donor interactions are critical, stabilizing key intermediates and transition states, while also introducing numerous competitive pathways.Keywords: alkaline earth metals; calcium; density functional theory (DFT); heterofunctionalization; hydrophosphination; noncovalent interactions; polymerization; protonolysis;

Hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) is an important and very general phenomenon. H-bonding is part of the basis of life in DNA, key in controlling the properties of water and ice, and critical to modern applications such as crystal engineering, catalysis applications, pharmaceutical and agrochemical development. H-bonding also plays a significant role for many ionic liquids (IL), determining the secondary structuring and affecting key physical parameters. ILs exhibit a particularly diverse and wide range of traditional as well as non-standard forms of H-bonding, in particular the doubly ionic H-bond is important. Understanding the fundamental nature of the H-bonds that form within ILs is critical, and one way of accessing this information, that cannot be recovered by any other computational method, is through quantum chemical electronic structure calculations. However, an appropriate method and basis set must be employed, and a robust procedure for determining key structures is essential. Modern generalised solvation models have recently been extended to ILs, bringing both advantages and disadvantages. QC can provide a range of information on geometry, IR and Raman spectra, NMR spectra and at a more fundamental level through analysis of the electronic structure.

Solvatochromic transition metal (TM)-complexes with weakly associating counter-anions are often used to evaluate traditional neutral solvent and anion coordination ability. However, when employed in ionic liquids (IL) many of the common assumptions made are no longer reliable. This study investigates the coordinating ability of weakly coordinating IL anions in traditional solvents and within IL solvents employing a range of solvatochromic copper complexes. Complexes of the form [Cu(acac)(tmen)][X] (acac = acetylacetonate, tmen = tetramethylethylenediamine) where [X]− = [ClO4]−, Cl−, [NO3]−, [SCN]−, [OTf]−, [NTf2]− and [PF6]− have been synthesised and characterised both experimentally and computationally. ILs based on these anions and imidazolium and pyrrolidinium cations, some of which are functionalised with hydroxyl and nitrile groups, have been examined. IL-anion coordination has been investigated and compared to typical weakly coordinating anions. We have found there is potential for competition at the Cu-centre and cases of anions traditionally assigned as weakly associating that demonstrate a stronger than expected level of coordinating ability within ILs. [Cu(acac)(tmen)][PF6] is shown to contain the least coordinating anion and is established as the most sensitive probe studied here. Using this probe, the donor numbers (DNs) of ILs have been determined. Relative donor ability is further confirmed based on the UV-Vis of a neutral complex, [Cu(sacsac)2] (sacsac = dithioacetylacetone), and DNs evaluated via23Na NMR spectroscopy. We demonstrate that ILs can span a wide donor range, similar in breadth to conventional solvents.

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are exemplars of systems with the ability to form neutral, ionic and doubly ionic H-bonds. Herein, the pairwise interactions of the constituent components of the choline chloride–urea DES are examined. Evidence is found for a tripodal CH⋯Cl doubly ionic H-bond motif. Moreover it is found that the covalency of doubly ionic H-bonds can be greater than, or comparable with, neutral and ionic examples. In contrast to many traditional solvents, an “alphabet soup” of many different types of H-bond (OH⋯OC, NH⋯OC, OH⋯Cl, NH⋯Cl, OH⋯NH, CH⋯Cl, CH⋯OC, NH⋯OH and NH⋯NH) can form. These H-bonds exhibit substantial flexibility in terms of number and strength. It is anticipated that H-bonding will have a significant impact on the entropy of the system and thus could play an important role in the formation of the eutectic. The 2:1 urea:choline–chloride eutectic point of this DES is often associated with the formation of a [Cl(urea)2]− complexed anion. However, urea is found to form a H-bonded urea[choline]+ complexed cation that is energetically competitive with [Cl(urea)2]−. The negative charge on [Cl(urea)2]− is found to remain localised on the chloride, moreover, the urea[choline]+ complexed cation forms the strongest H-bond studied here. Thus, there is potential to consider a urea[choline]+·urea[Cl]− interaction.

Ionic liquids (IL) and hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) are two diverse fields for which there is a developing recognition of significant overlap. Doubly ionic H-bonds occur when a H-bond forms between a cation and anion, and are a key feature of ILs. Doubly ionic H-bonds represent a wide area of H-bonding which has yet to be fully recognised, characterised or explored. H-bonds in ILs (both protic and aprotic) are bifurcated and chelating, and unlike many molecular liquids a significant variety of distinct H-bonds are formed between different types and numbers of donor and acceptor sites within a given IL. Traditional more neutral H-bonds can also be formed in functionalised ILs, adding a further level of complexity. Ab initio computed parameters; association energies, partial charges, density descriptors as encompassed by the QTAIM methodology (ρBCP), qualitative molecular orbital theory and NBO analysis provide established and robust mechanisms for understanding and interpreting traditional neutral and ionic H-bonds. In this review the applicability and extension of these parameters to describe and quantify the doubly ionic H-bond has been explored. Estimating the H-bonding energy is difficult because at a fundamental level the H-bond and ionic interaction are coupled. The NBO and QTAIM methodologies, unlike the total energy, are local descriptors and therefore can be used to directly compare neutral, ionic and doubly ionic H-bonds. The charged nature of the ions influences the ionic characteristics of the H-bond and vice versa, in addition the close association of the ions leads to enhanced orbital overlap and covalent contributions. The charge on the ions raises the energy of the Ylp and lowers the energy of the X–H σ* NBOs resulting in greater charge transfer, strengthening the H-bond. Using this range of parameters and comparing doubly ionic H-bonds to more traditional neutral and ionic H-bonds it is clear that doubly ionic H-bonds cover the full range of weak through to very strong H-bonds.

Ionic liquids have earned the reputation of being ‘designer solvents’ due to the wide range of accessible properties and the degree of fine-tuning afforded by varying the constituent ions. Mixtures of ionic liquids offer the opportunity for further fine-tuning of properties. A broad selection of common ionic liquid cations and anions are employed to create a sample of binary and reciprocal binary ionic liquid mixtures, which are analysed and described in this paper. Physical properties such as the conductivity, viscosity, density and phase behaviour (glass transition temperatures) are examined. In addition, thermal stabilities of the mixtures are evaluated. The physical properties examined for these formulations are found to generally adhere remarkably closely to ideal mixing laws, with a few consistent exceptions, allowing for the facile prediction and control of properties of ionic liquid mixtures.

A systematic electronic structure analysis of hydrogen bonding (H-bonding), anion–π+ and π+–π+ interactions present in [C1C1im]Cl ion-pairs (IPs) and selected [C1C1im]2Cl2 IP-dimers has been carried out. Interactions have been characterised using a combination of QTAIM, NCIPLOT, NBO and qualitative MO theory. IP-dimers form non-directional charge quadrupolar arrangements due to Coulombic interactions. These are found to associate either as clusters or as loosely associated IP–IP structures. Large conformational changes are found to occur for very little cost in energy, indicating that charge screening is essentially independent of the cation ring orientation. H-bond formation is accompanied by charge transfer and polarisation of the entire [C1C1im]+ ring. Charge transfer does not follow the same trend for the CHelpG, QTAIM and NBO methods. Weak “stacked” π+–π+ interactions are stabilised in the presence of anions, which locate between and at the periphery of the rings, novel strongly bent H-bonds are also present. Primary (ring; C–H⋯Cl−) H-bonds and anion–π+ (C2⋯Cl−) interactions are found to decay more rapidly with distance than secondary (aliphatic; CM–H⋯Cl−) H-bonds. This leads to an increase in the relative importance of secondary H-bond interactions in the IP-dimers. Moreover, rotation of the methyl groups within the “stacked” π+–π+ IP-dimers facilitates the formation of (stronger) linear secondary H-bonds. Thus, compared to isolated IPs, secondary H-bonds may play an increased role within the condensed phase. Overall we find that structural fluidity is facilitated by fluctuating hydrogen bond, π+–π+ and anion–π+ interactions.

Hydrogen bond (H-bond) dynamics have been investigated for “hot” 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride and “cold” 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ionic liquids (IL). While the average number of H-bonds remains constant for a ≈100 °C temperature change we show that the underlying dynamics of the H-bonding changes dramatically. H-bond dynamics are investigated based on distance and angle criteria, and on the H-bond state (zero, single or bifurcated H-bonds). Temperature effects on the cation ring reorientational dynamics are also examined. Angle deformations are found to be more important than bond stretching in determining the lifetime of individual H-bonds, and decay occurs on two time scales related to the magnitude of the deviation from linearity. Rapid angular oscillation of the anion breaks the H-bond (for the first time) and minimal temperature effects indicate that H-bonds are readily reformed even near the melting point. Intermittent H-bonds repeatedly break and reform over a longer timescale, and exhibit very strong temperature effects. In the hot IL H-bonding with ring and alkyl chain H-atoms occurs, ring reorientational dynamics is anisotropic and the corresponding lifetimes are similar to the intermittent H-bond lifetimes. In the cold IL ring H-atoms dominate the H-bonding and intermittent H-bonds last for ≈5 ns, ring reorientation occurs on a much slower timescale. The hot IL favours single H-bonds, but the individual ions often change, while the cold IL favours bifurcated H-bonds with the same co-located ions.

In this paper we have explored the structural and energetic landscape of potential π+–π+ stacked motifs, hydrogen-bonding arrangements and anion–π+ interactions for gas-phase ion pair (IP) conformers and IP-dimers of 1,3-dimethylimidazolium chloride, [C1C1im]Cl. We classify cation–cation ring stacking as an electron deficient π+–π+ interaction, and a competitive anion on-top IP motif as an anion–donor π+–acceptor interaction. 21 stable IP-dimers have been obtained within an energy range of 0–126 kJ mol−1. The structures have been found to exhibit a complex interplay of structural features. We have found that low energy IP-dimers are not necessarily formed from the lowest energy IP conformers. The sampled range of IP-dimers exhibits new structural forms that cannot be recovered by examining the ion-pairs alone, moreover the IP-dimers are recovering additional key features of the local liquid structure. Including dispersion is shown to impact both the relative energy ordering and the geometry of the IPs and IP-dimers, however the impact is found to be subtle and dependent on the underlying functional.

A range of methods for the computational prediction of experimentally derived α and β Kamlet–Taft parameters, indicators of hydrogen bond (H-bond) acidity and basicity for ionic liquids (ILs) have been explored. Most usefully, a good correlation has been established between several simple and easily computed quantities which allow for a “quick bench-top” evaluation. More accurate, but also more sophisticated methods employing TD-DFT calculations involving the Kamlet–Taft dyes have been examined and evaluated. Importantly, these techniques open up the opportunity for pre-screening and a priori prediction of properties for ILs not yet synthesised. A key fundamental insight into IL H-bonds has been the determination of an estimate for the energy associated with replacing both neutral molecules in a H-bond with ionic molecules, thus forming the “doubly ionic” H-bond found in ILs.

The thermal stability of a series of dialkylimidazolium carboxylate ionic liquids has been investigated using a broad range of experimental and computational techniques. Ionic liquids incorporating fluoroalkyl carboxylate anions were found to have profoundly differing thermal stabilities and decomposition mechanisms compared with their non-fluorinated analogues. 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate was observed to largely decompose via an SN2 nucleophilic substitution reaction when under inert gas conditions, predominantly at the imidazolium methyl substituent. The Arrhenius equations for thermal decomposition of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate, and the C2-methylated analogue 1-ethyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium acetate, were determined from isothermal Thermogravimetric Analysis experiments. The low thermal stability of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate has important implications for biomass experiments employing this ionic liquid. For these two ionic liquids, ion pair and transition state structures were optimised using Density Functional Theory. The activation barriers for the SN2 nucleophilic substitution mechanisms are in good agreement with the experimentally determined values.

Hydrogen abstraction reactions by the methyl radical from n-butanol have been investigated at the ROCBS-QB3 level of theory. Reaction energies and product geometries for the most stable conformer of n-butanol (ROH) have been computed, the reaction energies order α < γ < β < δ < OH. The preference for n-butane to favour H-abstraction at Cβ and Cγ while, in contrast, n-butanol favours radical reactions at the Cα carbon is rationalised. Transition state (TS) barriers and geometries for the most stable conformer of n-butanol are presented, and discussed with respect to the Hammond postulate. The reaction barriers order as α < OH < γ < β < δ. This relative ordering is not consistent with product radical stability, C–H bond dissociation energies or previous studies using ȮH and HȮ2 radicals. We provide a molecular orbital based rationalisation for this ordering and answer two related questions: Why is the γ-channel more stable than the β-channel? Why do the two Cγ–H H-abstraction TS differ in energy? The method and basis set dependence of the TS barriers is investigated. The Boltzmann probability distribution for the n-butanol conformers suggests that low energy conformers are present in approximately equal proportions to the most stable conformer at combustion temperatures where ĊH3 radicals are present. Thus, the relative significance of the various H-abstraction channels has been assessed for a selection of higher energy conformers (ROH'). Key results include finding that higher energy n-butanol conformers (E(ROH′) > E(ROH)) can generate lower energy product radicals, E(ṘOH′) < E(ṘOH). Moreover, higher energy conformers can also have a globally competitive TS energy for H-abstraction.

A detailed investigation of hydrogen bonding in the pure ionic liquids [C4C1im]Cl and [C2C1im]Cl has been carried out using primarily molecular dynamics techniques. Analyses of the individual atom–atom pair radial distribution functions, and in particular those for C···Cl–, have revealed that hydrogen bonding to the first methylene or methyl units of the substituent groups is important. Multiple geometric criteria for defining a hydrogen bond have been applied, and in particular the choice of the cutoff angle has been carefully examined. The interpretation of hydrogen bonding within these ionic liquids is highly angle dependent, and justification is provided for why it may be appropriate to employ a wider angle criteria than the 30° used for water or alcohol systems. The different types of hydrogen bond formed are characterized, and “top” conformations where the Cl anion resides above (or below) the imidazolium ring are investigated. The number of hydrogen bonds undertaken by each hydrogen atom (and the chloride anion) is quantified, and the propensity to form zero, one, or two hydrogen bonds is established. The effects of an increase in temperature on the static hydrogen bonding are also briefly examined.

In this paper we use ab initio theoretical methods in combination with experimental studies to investigate ion-pairs of the ionic liquid (IL) 1-methyl-3-pentamethyldisiloxymethylimidazolium chloride [(SiOSi)C1C1im]Cl, in order to deepen our understanding of the effects of functionalisation on an IL. In addition, we focus on the effect of the siloxy group on the viscosity. We establish that the ion-pairing energies of [(SiOSi)C1C1im]Cl are similar to those of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [C4C1im]Cl, because the anion interacts primarily with the imidazolium ring. A large range of ion-pair structural configurations is possible with different anion positions and chain orientations, contributing to a significant entropy. A H-bonded network forms, however the siloxy chain can shield the Cl− or key C–H sites thus introducing defects. Despite a significant increase in mass relative to [C4C1im]+, the combined barriers to rotation within the substituent chain are substantially reduced in [(SiOSi)C1C1im]+, this is primarily due to the flexibility of the siloxane linkage, and free rotation of the Si–Me methyl groups. The most important effect is a coupling of rotational motions within the chain which leads to dynamic inter-conversion of cation conformers, and facilitates movement of the anion around the cation, these will contribute to enhanced transport properties and a reduced viscosity. In addition, a longer charge arm is expected to enhance rotational and rotational-translational coupling in electric fields. Thus, for [(SiOSi)C1C1im]Cl ion-pair association is very similar to that of [C4C1im]Cl, but “dynamic” properties relating to torsional motion, a dynamic H-bonded network, and cation response to an external electric field are enhanced.

The local intermolecular structure and dynamics of a recently proposed alternative refrigerant 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-1-propene has been investigated using classical molecular dynamics and ab initio quantum chemical techniques. The potential for hydrogen bonding is investigated, and evidence is found for weak interactions that do not differ substantially between the two types of fluorine atom acceptor. The dynamics of the weak hydrogen bonding are examined via residence and reorientational dynamics. Spectral densities are computed from atomic velocity autocorrelation functions and discussed in concert with the ab initio infrared vibrational spectrum of the (gas-phase) monomer and dimers; particular attention is paid to the presence of low-wavenumber librational motions. The net result of this study is a more detailed picture of the local structural ordering and dynamics within this weakly hydrogen-bonding liquid.

In this paper we use ab initio theoretical methods in combination with experimental studies to investigate ion-pairs of the ionic liquid (IL) 1-methyl-3-pentamethyldisiloxymethylimidazolium chloride [(SiOSi)C1C1im]Cl, in order to deepen our understanding of the effects of functionalisation on an IL. In addition, we focus on the effect of the siloxy group on the viscosity. We establish that the ion-pairing energies of [(SiOSi)C1C1im]Cl are similar to those of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [C4C1im]Cl, because the anion interacts primarily with the imidazolium ring. A large range of ion-pair structural configurations is possible with different anion positions and chain orientations, contributing to a significant entropy. A H-bonded network forms, however the siloxy chain can shield the Cl− or key C–H sites thus introducing defects. Despite a significant increase in mass relative to [C4C1im]+, the combined barriers to rotation within the substituent chain are substantially reduced in [(SiOSi)C1C1im]+, this is primarily due to the flexibility of the siloxane linkage, and free rotation of the Si–Me methyl groups. The most important effect is a coupling of rotational motions within the chain which leads to dynamic inter-conversion of cation conformers, and facilitates movement of the anion around the cation, these will contribute to enhanced transport properties and a reduced viscosity. In addition, a longer charge arm is expected to enhance rotational and rotational-translational coupling in electric fields. Thus, for [(SiOSi)C1C1im]Cl ion-pair association is very similar to that of [C4C1im]Cl, but “dynamic” properties relating to torsional motion, a dynamic H-bonded network, and cation response to an external electric field are enhanced.

In this paper we have explored the structural and energetic landscape of potential π+–π+ stacked motifs, hydrogen-bonding arrangements and anion–π+ interactions for gas-phase ion pair (IP) conformers and IP-dimers of 1,3-dimethylimidazolium chloride, [C1C1im]Cl. We classify cation–cation ring stacking as an electron deficient π+–π+ interaction, and a competitive anion on-top IP motif as an anion–donor π+–acceptor interaction. 21 stable IP-dimers have been obtained within an energy range of 0–126 kJ mol−1. The structures have been found to exhibit a complex interplay of structural features. We have found that low energy IP-dimers are not necessarily formed from the lowest energy IP conformers. The sampled range of IP-dimers exhibits new structural forms that cannot be recovered by examining the ion-pairs alone, moreover the IP-dimers are recovering additional key features of the local liquid structure. Including dispersion is shown to impact both the relative energy ordering and the geometry of the IPs and IP-dimers, however the impact is found to be subtle and dependent on the underlying functional.

The thermal stability of a series of dialkylimidazolium carboxylate ionic liquids has been investigated using a broad range of experimental and computational techniques. Ionic liquids incorporating fluoroalkyl carboxylate anions were found to have profoundly differing thermal stabilities and decomposition mechanisms compared with their non-fluorinated analogues. 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate was observed to largely decompose via an SN2 nucleophilic substitution reaction when under inert gas conditions, predominantly at the imidazolium methyl substituent. The Arrhenius equations for thermal decomposition of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate, and the C2-methylated analogue 1-ethyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium acetate, were determined from isothermal Thermogravimetric Analysis experiments. The low thermal stability of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate has important implications for biomass experiments employing this ionic liquid. For these two ionic liquids, ion pair and transition state structures were optimised using Density Functional Theory. The activation barriers for the SN2 nucleophilic substitution mechanisms are in good agreement with the experimentally determined values.

Hydrogen abstraction reactions by the methyl radical from n-butanol have been investigated at the ROCBS-QB3 level of theory. Reaction energies and product geometries for the most stable conformer of n-butanol (ROH) have been computed, the reaction energies order α < γ < β < δ < OH. The preference for n-butane to favour H-abstraction at Cβ and Cγ while, in contrast, n-butanol favours radical reactions at the Cα carbon is rationalised. Transition state (TS) barriers and geometries for the most stable conformer of n-butanol are presented, and discussed with respect to the Hammond postulate. The reaction barriers order as α < OH < γ < β < δ. This relative ordering is not consistent with product radical stability, C–H bond dissociation energies or previous studies using ȮH and HȮ2 radicals. We provide a molecular orbital based rationalisation for this ordering and answer two related questions: Why is the γ-channel more stable than the β-channel? Why do the two Cγ–H H-abstraction TS differ in energy? The method and basis set dependence of the TS barriers is investigated. The Boltzmann probability distribution for the n-butanol conformers suggests that low energy conformers are present in approximately equal proportions to the most stable conformer at combustion temperatures where ĊH3 radicals are present. Thus, the relative significance of the various H-abstraction channels has been assessed for a selection of higher energy conformers (ROH'). Key results include finding that higher energy n-butanol conformers (E(ROH′) > E(ROH)) can generate lower energy product radicals, E(ṘOH′) < E(ṘOH). Moreover, higher energy conformers can also have a globally competitive TS energy for H-abstraction.

Hydrogen bond (H-bond) dynamics have been investigated for “hot” 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride and “cold” 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ionic liquids (IL). While the average number of H-bonds remains constant for a ≈100 °C temperature change we show that the underlying dynamics of the H-bonding changes dramatically. H-bond dynamics are investigated based on distance and angle criteria, and on the H-bond state (zero, single or bifurcated H-bonds). Temperature effects on the cation ring reorientational dynamics are also examined. Angle deformations are found to be more important than bond stretching in determining the lifetime of individual H-bonds, and decay occurs on two time scales related to the magnitude of the deviation from linearity. Rapid angular oscillation of the anion breaks the H-bond (for the first time) and minimal temperature effects indicate that H-bonds are readily reformed even near the melting point. Intermittent H-bonds repeatedly break and reform over a longer timescale, and exhibit very strong temperature effects. In the hot IL H-bonding with ring and alkyl chain H-atoms occurs, ring reorientational dynamics is anisotropic and the corresponding lifetimes are similar to the intermittent H-bond lifetimes. In the cold IL ring H-atoms dominate the H-bonding and intermittent H-bonds last for ≈5 ns, ring reorientation occurs on a much slower timescale. The hot IL favours single H-bonds, but the individual ions often change, while the cold IL favours bifurcated H-bonds with the same co-located ions.

Ionic liquids have earned the reputation of being ‘designer solvents’ due to the wide range of accessible properties and the degree of fine-tuning afforded by varying the constituent ions. Mixtures of ionic liquids offer the opportunity for further fine-tuning of properties. A broad selection of common ionic liquid cations and anions are employed to create a sample of binary and reciprocal binary ionic liquid mixtures, which are analysed and described in this paper. Physical properties such as the conductivity, viscosity, density and phase behaviour (glass transition temperatures) are examined. In addition, thermal stabilities of the mixtures are evaluated. The physical properties examined for these formulations are found to generally adhere remarkably closely to ideal mixing laws, with a few consistent exceptions, allowing for the facile prediction and control of properties of ionic liquid mixtures.

Ionic liquids (IL) and hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) are two diverse fields for which there is a developing recognition of significant overlap. Doubly ionic H-bonds occur when a H-bond forms between a cation and anion, and are a key feature of ILs. Doubly ionic H-bonds represent a wide area of H-bonding which has yet to be fully recognised, characterised or explored. H-bonds in ILs (both protic and aprotic) are bifurcated and chelating, and unlike many molecular liquids a significant variety of distinct H-bonds are formed between different types and numbers of donor and acceptor sites within a given IL. Traditional more neutral H-bonds can also be formed in functionalised ILs, adding a further level of complexity. Ab initio computed parameters; association energies, partial charges, density descriptors as encompassed by the QTAIM methodology (ρBCP), qualitative molecular orbital theory and NBO analysis provide established and robust mechanisms for understanding and interpreting traditional neutral and ionic H-bonds. In this review the applicability and extension of these parameters to describe and quantify the doubly ionic H-bond has been explored. Estimating the H-bonding energy is difficult because at a fundamental level the H-bond and ionic interaction are coupled. The NBO and QTAIM methodologies, unlike the total energy, are local descriptors and therefore can be used to directly compare neutral, ionic and doubly ionic H-bonds. The charged nature of the ions influences the ionic characteristics of the H-bond and vice versa, in addition the close association of the ions leads to enhanced orbital overlap and covalent contributions. The charge on the ions raises the energy of the Ylp and lowers the energy of the X–H σ* NBOs resulting in greater charge transfer, strengthening the H-bond. Using this range of parameters and comparing doubly ionic H-bonds to more traditional neutral and ionic H-bonds it is clear that doubly ionic H-bonds cover the full range of weak through to very strong H-bonds.

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are exemplars of systems with the ability to form neutral, ionic and doubly ionic H-bonds. Herein, the pairwise interactions of the constituent components of the choline chloride–urea DES are examined. Evidence is found for a tripodal CH⋯Cl doubly ionic H-bond motif. Moreover it is found that the covalency of doubly ionic H-bonds can be greater than, or comparable with, neutral and ionic examples. In contrast to many traditional solvents, an “alphabet soup” of many different types of H-bond (OH⋯OC, NH⋯OC, OH⋯Cl, NH⋯Cl, OH⋯NH, CH⋯Cl, CH⋯OC, NH⋯OH and NH⋯NH) can form. These H-bonds exhibit substantial flexibility in terms of number and strength. It is anticipated that H-bonding will have a significant impact on the entropy of the system and thus could play an important role in the formation of the eutectic. The 2:1 urea:choline–chloride eutectic point of this DES is often associated with the formation of a [Cl(urea)2]− complexed anion. However, urea is found to form a H-bonded urea[choline]+ complexed cation that is energetically competitive with [Cl(urea)2]−. The negative charge on [Cl(urea)2]− is found to remain localised on the chloride, moreover, the urea[choline]+ complexed cation forms the strongest H-bond studied here. Thus, there is potential to consider a urea[choline]+·urea[Cl]− interaction.

A range of methods for the computational prediction of experimentally derived α and β Kamlet–Taft parameters, indicators of hydrogen bond (H-bond) acidity and basicity for ionic liquids (ILs) have been explored. Most usefully, a good correlation has been established between several simple and easily computed quantities which allow for a “quick bench-top” evaluation. More accurate, but also more sophisticated methods employing TD-DFT calculations involving the Kamlet–Taft dyes have been examined and evaluated. Importantly, these techniques open up the opportunity for pre-screening and a priori prediction of properties for ILs not yet synthesised. A key fundamental insight into IL H-bonds has been the determination of an estimate for the energy associated with replacing both neutral molecules in a H-bond with ionic molecules, thus forming the “doubly ionic” H-bond found in ILs.

A systematic electronic structure analysis of hydrogen bonding (H-bonding), anion–π+ and π+–π+ interactions present in [C1C1im]Cl ion-pairs (IPs) and selected [C1C1im]2Cl2 IP-dimers has been carried out. Interactions have been characterised using a combination of QTAIM, NCIPLOT, NBO and qualitative MO theory. IP-dimers form non-directional charge quadrupolar arrangements due to Coulombic interactions. These are found to associate either as clusters or as loosely associated IP–IP structures. Large conformational changes are found to occur for very little cost in energy, indicating that charge screening is essentially independent of the cation ring orientation. H-bond formation is accompanied by charge transfer and polarisation of the entire [C1C1im]+ ring. Charge transfer does not follow the same trend for the CHelpG, QTAIM and NBO methods. Weak “stacked” π+–π+ interactions are stabilised in the presence of anions, which locate between and at the periphery of the rings, novel strongly bent H-bonds are also present. Primary (ring; C–H⋯Cl−) H-bonds and anion–π+ (C2⋯Cl−) interactions are found to decay more rapidly with distance than secondary (aliphatic; CM–H⋯Cl−) H-bonds. This leads to an increase in the relative importance of secondary H-bond interactions in the IP-dimers. Moreover, rotation of the methyl groups within the “stacked” π+–π+ IP-dimers facilitates the formation of (stronger) linear secondary H-bonds. Thus, compared to isolated IPs, secondary H-bonds may play an increased role within the condensed phase. Overall we find that structural fluidity is facilitated by fluctuating hydrogen bond, π+–π+ and anion–π+ interactions.