•JFP-Ps contained 79.12% of total sugar, 15.65% of uronic acid and 5.83% of protein.•JFP-Ps was a heteropolysaccharide, composed of Rha, Ara, Gal, Glc, Xyl and GalA.•The molecular weight of JFP-Ps was 1668 kDa, with purity higher than 89.58%.•JFP-Ps exerted strong DPPH and OH scavenging effects, low reducing capacity.A water-soluble polysaccharide from Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (jackfruit) pulp (JFP-Ps) was purified and its physicochemical properties were investigated. The in vitro antioxidant activities of JFP-Ps was evaluated by measuring DPPH and OH radicals scavenging activities, as well as reducing power. The results showed that JFP-Ps contained 79.12% of total sugar, 5.83% of protein, 15.65% of uronic acid, and 15 kinds of amino acids with high levels of Asp, Glu, Val, Leu and Lys. JFP-Ps was mainly composed of Rha, Ara, Gal, Glc, Xyl and GalA, with an average molecular weight of 1668 kDa. FT-IR results showed the bands at the range of 1200–850 cm−1 suggested the presence of carbohydrates in JFP-Ps. The results of antioxidant activities showed that JFP-Ps exhibited strong DPPH and OH radical scavenging activities, with a relatively lower reducing power, suggesting that JFP-Ps can be exploited as effective natural antioxidant applications in medical and food industries.

•Three polysaccharide fractions were purified from the leaf skin of Aloe vera using gradient ammonium sulfate precipitation.•Their molecular weights were decreasing from 339 kDa to 67.6 kDa with the increase of ammonium sulfate concentration.•Glucose and mannose with different ratios were found in the three fractions.•One of the three fractions was identified to be acetylated β-(1 → 4)-glucomannan.Aloe barbadensis Miller (Aloe vera) is widely used for healthy foods, medical and cosmetic products, while its leaf skin is usually treated as industrial waste. To have a profound understanding of the polysaccharides in the leaf skin of Aloe vera, crude polysaccharide was extracted from the leaf skin of Aloe vera and purified into three fractions, designated as ASP-4N, ASP-6N and ASP-8N, using gradient ammonium sulfate precipitation. The physicochemical properties and structural characteristics of ASP-4N were systematically investigated by methylation analysis and 1D/2D NMR spectroscopy. Results showed that decreasing contents of neutral sugar (79%–74%) were detected among the three fractions, with the concentration increasing of ammonium sulfate used for precipitation. Small amounts of protein and uronic acid were also detected by colorimetric method. Homogeneity identified by high performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC) indicated that the three fractions were highly purified. The relative weight average molecular weights for ASP-4N, ASP-6N and ASP-8N were 339, 130 and 67.6 kDa, successively. Monosaccharide compositions and characteristic FT-IR spectra of these fractions suggested the presence of typical acetylated glucomannan and the ratios of mannose/glucose were 19.13, 8.97 and 2.96, successively. Further structural analysis of ASP-4N suggested that it was a highly acetylated (1 → 4)-β-glucomannan. There was also some (1 → 3)-β-Manp mixed in the backbone.Download high-res image (219KB)Download full-size image

•Not all of the antioxidants tested showed mitigating effects on furan formation.•The effects of antioxidants were not correlated with their antioxidant activity.•The kinetics of furan formation was described by power function models.Furan, a possible carcinogen, is commonly produced by thermal processing in a number of heated foods. In this study, the effects of several natural and synthetic antioxidants on thermally induced furan formation in ascorbic acid, linoleic and linolenic acid model systems were investigated, and results demonstrated that not all of the antioxidants tested showed mitigating effects on furan formation. For the ascorbic acid model system, chlorogenic acid was found to be the most efficient antioxidant in suppressing furan formation. For the linoleic and linolenic acid model systems, the most significant reduction (92% in the former and 80% in the latter) was observed in the case of model systems with butylated hydroxytoluene. In addition, the effects of antioxidants on the kinetics of furan formation were investigated by adding chlorogenic acid into the ascorbic acid model system and sesamol into both linoleic and linolenic acid model system, and the results showed that the mitigating effects of antioxidants might decline with increasing heating time. To describe the kinetics of furan formation from these model systems, power function models were established by non-linear regression and the results indicated that the proposed models could successfully fit the experimental data (R2 > 0.988).

•Molecular weight of PSG decreased during simulated gastrointestinal (GSI) digestion.•There was no free monosaccharide to generate throughout GSI digestion.•Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) increased during fermentation in vitro.•The enhancement of SCFAs and decline of pH were observed in mice given PSG orally.The study was aimed to investigate the digestion and fermentation behaviors of the bioactive polysaccharide from Ganoderma atrum (PSG) in vitro and in vivo. The molecular weight (Mw) of PSG steadily decreased from 198.0 ± 0.3 to 147.1 ± 0.3 kDa and no free monosaccharides generated throughout simulated gastric and intestinal (GSI) digestion in vitro. The fermentation of PSG by human fecal microbiota was determined by change of pH and production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The pH in fecal inoculums declined, and the concentrations of total SCFAs, acetic, propionic and butyric acids all significantly improved during fermentation in vitro. In addition, mice were taken PSG orally at doses of 50, 100, 200 mg/kg body weight for 30 days, respectively. After PSG administration, the concentrations of SCFAs increased. Meanwhile, fecal pH continually declined as oral time increased. Combining these findings both in vitro and in vivo, our results showed that the Mw of PSG decreased and no free monosaccharide was produced in GSI digestion and PSG promoted the production of SCFAs and the decline of pH in the large intestinal fermentation, which may provide information that PSG was not entirely digested in GSI digestion and was mainly degraded in the large intestine.Download high-res image (102KB)Download full-size image

•26 kidney beans were systemically analyzed in nutrients and phytochemicals.•Many kidney beans are excellent sources of protein, dietary fiber and resistant starch.•Many kidney beans are rich in γ-tocopherol and phenolics.•All kidney beans have certain levels of antioxidants.Detailed characterization in nutrients and phytochemicals with antioxidant activities of 26 kidney beans was performed. The kidney beans contained high levels of dietary fiber (29.32–46.77%), resistant starch (9.16–18.09%) and protein (22.06–32.63%) but low levels of lipid (1.05–2.83%) and sugars (1.55–9.07%). The monosaccharide composition of soluble fiber was dominated by arabinose, galactose, mannose and galacturonic acid. The ratio of essential amino acid to the total amino acid was ranged from 0.29 to 0.36. The predominant fatty acid was polyunsaturated fatty acids, accounting for 47.54–67.26% of total fatty acids. The total tocopherol content was in the range of 12.83–68.35 μg/g, predominantly γ-tocopherol, followed by δ-tocopherol. In addition, certain levels of total phenolics and flavonoids with respective values of 0.25–3.79 mg gallic acid equivalent/g dry weight and 0.19–7.05 mg rutin equivalent/g dry weight resulted in significant antioxidant activities. And a good correlation was observed between TPC and FRAP values (R2 = 0.8030). The results indicated that kidney beans are excellent sources of health-promoting compounds.

•A homogenous polysaccharide (NCSP-50) from natural Cordyceps sinensis was isolated and purified.•NCSP-50 is a 4-linked α-glucan substituted by α-glucose units attached to C-6.•The glucan showed a significant immunostimulatory effect on macrophages.A water-soluble polysaccharide, named NCSP-50, was obtained from natural Cordyceps sinensis by hot water extraction and ethanol fractionation precipitation. It was eluted as a single symmetrical peak and had an average molecular weight of 9.76 × 105 Da. The structure was determined by monosaccharide composition, methylation analysis, 1D/2D NMR spectroscopy, and enzymatic hydrolysis and characterization of the oligosaccharides by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The repeating unit of this polysaccharide was proposed as follows:Download high-res image (64KB)Download full-size imageThis glucan showed potent immunostimulatory activity on the basis of its significant abilities to promote macrophage proliferation, enhance NO production, as well as and cytokines (IL-1β and TNF-α) secretion.Download high-res image (189KB)Download full-size image

Four polysaccharides (named as P1, P2, and P3 from three natural Cordyceps sinensis and P4 from cultured C. sinensis) were obtained by hot-water extraction and ethanol precipitation and their structural characteristics as well as antioxidant potentials were compared. Results revealed that the backbone of P1, P2, and P3 comprised α-1,4-glucose, with a branching point mainly at position 6 and terminating at glucose. On the other hand, the structure of P4 was highly complex, mainly comprising glucose, galactose, and mannose, with 1,4-glucose and 1,4-galactose as the main chain. For in vitro antioxidant assays, all the four polysaccharides showed similar scavenging capacity against DPPH and hydroxyl radicals, whereas P1 had a relatively low ferric reducing ability, possibly related to a combination of factors such as the phenolic compounds and amino acids that conjugated in polysaccharides.

•Kidney bean coats are excellent sources of anthocyanins.•Sixteen anthocyanins were identified in tested samples.•Anthocyanins contribute significantly to the antioxidant activity of kidney bean coats.Colour features, anthocyanins composition and antioxidant activities of the coats from 26 kidney bean cultivars were investigated. The colour of kidney bean coats was diverse, and a good correlation was observed between c value and delphinidin content (r2 = 0.7454). Based on 5 common forms of anthocyanidins, 16 anthocyanins were identified. The individual content of pelargonidin, cyanidin, petunidin, delphinidin, malvidin and the total anthocyanindins were in the ranges of 0–0.71, 0–1.44, 0–0.41, 0–4.45, 0–0.27, and 0–5.84 mg/g of dry weight of bean coats. Significant differences of the antioxidant activities were observed. Non-white bean coats which contained more anthocyanidins showed much higher antioxidant activities than the white ones which contained no anthocyanidins. Delphinidin and cyanidin played an important role in the strong antioxidant activities of the tested samples. Our study revealed that appropriate selection of kidney beans could provide abundant sources of anthocyanins for food colourants endowed with antioxidant activities.

•Formation of 3-MCPD esters has a positive correlation with MAGs, DAGs and chlorine.•Chlorine is more predominant than acylglycerols in terms of precursors.•Washing bleached oil can reduce the 3-MCPD esters in deodorized oil.•Adding diacetin can mitigate the formation of 3-MCPD esters during deodorizing.In the present study, lab-scale physical refining processes were investigated for their effects on the formation of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters. The potential precursors, partial acylglycerols and chlorines were determined before each refining step. 3-MCPD esters were not detected in degummed and bleached oil when the crude oils were extracted by solvent. While in the hot squeezed crude oils, 3-MCPD esters were detected with low amounts. 3-MCPD esters were generated with maximum values in 1–1.5 h at a certain deodorizing temperature (220–260 °C). Chlorine seemed to be more effective precursor than partial acylglycerol. By washing bleached oil before deodorization with ethanol solution, the precursors were removed partially and the content of 3-MCPD esters decreased to some extent accordingly. Diacetin was found to reduce 3-MCPD esters effectively.

The balance of T helper cells 17 (Th17)/regulatory T cells (Treg) plays a key role in maintaining a normal immune response. It is well-known that cyclophosphamide (CTX) applied at high dose often damages the immune system by inhibiting immune cell proliferation. In this study, the immunomodulating effects of Lactobacillus plantarum NCU116 in CTX-induced immunosuppression mice were investigated. Results showed that the levels of cytokines interleukin (IL)-17 and IL-21 were significantly increased after 10 days of treatment with a high dose of NCU116 (46.92 ± 4.28 and 119.92 ± 10.89, respectively) compared with the model group (36.20 ± 2.63, 61.00 ± 6.92, respectively), and the levels of cytokines IL-23 and TGF-β3 of the three NCU116 treatment groups were significantly higher than that of the model group (90.48 ± 6.33 and 140.45 ± 14.30, respectively) (p < 0.05) and close to 62 and 69% of the normal group’s level (140.98 ± 14.74 and 266.95 ± 23.11, respectively) at 10 days. The bacterium was also found to increase the expression levels of Th17 immune response and Treg immune response specific transcription factors RORγt and Foxp3. In addition, the bacterium significantly increased the number of CD4+T cells and dendrtic cells (DCs) and up-regulated mRNA expression of Toll-like receptors (TLRs). These findings demonstrated that NCU116 has the potential ability to enhance intestinal mucosa immunity and regulate the Th17/Treg balance, which may be attributed to the TLR pathway in DCs.

Anticancer drugs at high doses often damage the intestinal mucosa and metabolism. Lactobacillus plantarum NCU116 (NCU116) isolated from pickled vegetables was orally given to cyclophosphamide-treated mice to determine its effects on intestinal mucosal injury, nutrient metabolism and colon microbiota, and investigate the mechanisms accounting for its effects. Mice treated with the bacterium were found to favorably recover intestine morphology of villus height and crypt depth, and have improved mucins expression and quantity of goblet cells, as well as intestinal metabolism by increasing the level of short-chain fatty acids and reducing the concentration of ammonia in the colon feces. In addition, NCU116-treated mice showed a higher diversity of colonic microbiota than the group without bacterium supplementation. The number of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium in the mouse colon was increased after bacterium intake, which decreased the number of potentially pathogenic bacteria, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas. These results indicated that NCU116 could be of significant advantage in reducing intestinal mucosal injury and improving the intestinal metabolism and the intestinal microbiota.

A crude polysaccharide fraction (cDOP) has been determined to be the characteristic marker of Dendrobium officinale, an expensive tea material in Asia, but its chemistry and bioactivity have not been studied. In work reported here, cDOP was destarched (DOP, 90% yield) and separated into two subfraction polysaccharides, DOPa and DOPb, which were characterized by monosaccharide composition and methylation analyses and spectral analyses (FT-IR and 1H and 13C NMR). Both are composed of mannose and glucose at similar ratios and have a similar structure with a backbone of 1,4-linked β-d-mannopyranosyl and β-d-glucopyranosyl residues. Significant differences were observed only in their molecular weights. Bioassay using mouse macrophage cell line RAW264.7 indicated that DOP and its two subfractions enhance cell proliferation, TNF-α secretion, and phagocytosis in a dose-dependent manner. They also induced the proliferation of lymphocytes alone and with mitogens. DOPa and DOPb are thus proven to be major, active polysaccharide markers of D. officinale.

The present study was to evaluate the beneficial effect of polysaccharide isolated from Ganoderma atrum (PSG-1) on liver function in type 2 diabetic rats. Results showed that PSG-1 decreased the activities of serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), while increasing hepatic glycogen levels. PSG-1 also exerted strong antioxidant activities, together with upregulated mRNA expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ), glucose transporter-4 (GLUT4), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), and phosphorylated-Akt (p-Akt) in the liver of diabetic rats. Moreover, the concentrations of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) were significantly higher in the liver, serum, and faeces of diabetic rats after treating with PSG-1 for 4 weeks. These results suggest that the improvement of PSG-1 on liver function in type 2 diabetic rats may be due to its antioxidant effects, SCFA excretion in the colon from PSG-1, and regulation of hepatic glucose uptake by inducing GLUT4 translocation through PI3K/Akt signaling pathways.

This research was aimed to study the effect of Dendrobium officinale polysaccharide (Dendronan) on colonic health. Mice were fed Dendronan at doses of 40, 80, and 160 mg/kg body weight for 0, 10, 20, and 30 days, respectively. Results showed that Dendronan, which has a special structure formed by mannose and glucose, rich in O-acetyl groups, exhibited improving effects on colonic and fecal parameters of Balb/c mice. After Dendronan feeding, the content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), colon length and index, and fecal moisture were increased, whereas colonic pH was decreased and defecation time was shortened. All of these changes were significantly different between polysaccharide-treated groups and the control group (p < 0.05). These findings suggested that an adequate intake of Dendronan is beneficial to the process of fermentation and regulation of colonic microenvironment, thus playing a role in the maintenance of colonic health.

•PSG was fractionated into five fractions with different content of sugar, proteins and phenolic compounds.•Antioxidant components were enriched in the high charge density fractions (F0.5 and F2).•Acidic fractions (F0.2 and F0.5) were responsible for the immunomodulatory activity of PSG.•Phenolic and proteins were clarified to be the pivotal antioxidant components in PSG.The pivotal components responsible for the antioxidant activities of polysaccharide from Ganoderma atrum (PSG) were identified by chemical composition and antioxidant activity analysis after separating PSG into different fractions. PSG was determined to be a mixture with neutral fraction and acidic fraction, as well as protein and phenolic compounds. The fractions with different ionic density were separated by anion exchange chromatography (AEC). The neutral fraction (Fw) was identified as a (1→6)-linked-heterogalactan, while the ionic fractions (F0.2, F0.5 and F2) were acidic (1→3, 1→6)-linked-heteroglucans with non-sugar components. Phenolic compounds and proteins bonded/crosslinked with PSG were enriched in the very ionic fractions (F0.5 and F2). Antioxidant activities of PSG and its fractions via chemical assays showed good correlation to the total phenolic and protein contents, while cell culture assay indicated that acidic (1→3, 1→6)-linked-heteroglucan could significantly stimulate the macrophage cell RAW264.7 to release nitric oxide. These results clarified that the antioxidant activities of PSG ascribed to the phenolic and protein components, rather than the carbohydrates part which would be more responsible to the immunomodulatory activity of PSG.

•The antioxidant activities in vitro of different carbohydrates were studied by different manners.•The antioxidant activities of monosaccharide and oligosaccharide had not been found.•The antioxidant activities of complex carbohydrate were mainly attributed to the phenolic and protein components, rather than carbohydrate moiety.In the current study, we evaluated the antioxidant activities of highly purified monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and complex carbohydrates using six in vitro antioxidant assays, including oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), β-carotene bleaching assay, 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, hydroxyl radical scavenging and superoxide radicals scavenging methods. The results suggested that monosaccharides and oligosaccharides scarcely exhibited antioxidant activities in vitro. For example in the β-carotene bleaching assay the inhibitory effects of monosaccharides at 1 mg/mL were between 0.24% to 2.25% although galacturonic acid demonstrated some inhibitory effects (8.59%). Significant lower antioxidant activities were observed for complex carbohydrates compared to ascorbic acid and BHT (e.g. ferric reducing antioxidant power by the FRAP assay), >1800 μmol Fe (Ⅱ)/g were observed for ascorbic acid and BHT compared to only 10–60 μmol Fe (Ⅱ)/g for complex carbohydrates, and 1.60 and 6.43 μmol Fe (Ⅱ)/g for mono and oligosaccharides. The observed antioxidant activities for complex carbohydrates are correlated with the presence of phenolic and/or protein components. The findings from the current study indicate that it is necessary to re-evaluate the antioxidant activities claimed for complex carbohydrates in the literature as many of them did not consider the contribution of other minor components such as phenolics and proteins.

•PSG-1 enhanced macrophage phagocytosis, NO and cytokine release in Cy-treated mice.•PSG-1 activated MAPKs, PI3K/Akt and NF-κB signaling pathways in Cy-treated mice.•PSG-1 recovered T and B cell proliferation responses in Cy-treated mice.•PSG-1 stimulated Ca2+/PKC and cAMP/PKA signaling pathways in Cy-treated mice.•PSG-1 is a potential candidate in lessening chemotherapy-induced immunosuppression.The molecular mechanism underlying the chemoprotective effects of Ganoderma atrum polysaccharide in cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed mice was investigated. In Cy-treated mice, PSG-1 treatment significantly promoted the phagocytosis, and stimulated the production of NO and cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) in peritoneal macrophages. Moreover, PSG-1 elevated the phosphorylation of MAPKs and Akt, as well as expression of NF-κB in peritoneal macrophages. In addition, PSG-1 enhanced the recovery of T and B cell proliferation responses in Cy-treated mice. Furthermore, Ca2+ concentration and PKC activity of spleen lymphocytes in PSG-1 groups dramatically increased as compared with that of the model group. Finally, PSG-1 administration was found to dose-dependently improve the decline of cAMP level and PKA activity caused by Cy. These findings indicated that the chemoprotective effects of PSG-1 may be attributed to its capacity to activate peritoneal macrophages and spleen lymphocytes in Cy-treated mice.

•Cultured Dendrobium officinale exhibited immunomodulatory activities reported for the wild varieties.•The purified polysaccharide fraction is confirmed as one of the main bioactive component of Dendrobium officinale.•β-(1→4)-Man linkage and O-acetyl structure might be the feature structures responsible for immunomodulatory activity.As part of a series of studies on the bioactivities and structures of polysaccharides from Dendrobium officinale, this study investigates the immunomodulatory activities of Dendrobium officinale and its two polysaccharide fractions (crude and purified, respectively) in cyclophosphamide induced mice. All three materials protected the body from immunosuppression in a dose-dependent manner. Biological activities related to immunomodulations investigated included stimulating the proliferation of splenocytes, balancing the ratio of spleen lymphocyte subsets and the secretion of serum cytokines, up-regulating the serum IgM, IgG and haemolysin formation, and accelerating the phagocytotic function of peritoneal macrophage. The degree of modulations were higher in purified Dendrobium officinale polysaccharide than crude polysaccharide, indicating that the purified polysaccharide was one of the key bioactive components in Dendrobium officinale, the main structure of which has been identified as O-acetyl-glucomannan (Dendronan)

Mushroom is a kind of fungus that has been popular for its special flavour and renowned biological values. The polysaccharide contained in mushroom is regarded as one of the primary bioactive constituents and is beneficial for health. The structural features and bioactivities of mushroom polysaccharides have been studied extensively. It is believed that the diverse biological bioactivities of polysaccharides are closely related to their structure or conformation properties. In this review, the structural characteristics, conformational features and bioactivities of several mushroom polysaccharides are summarized, and their beneficial mechanisms and the relationships between their structure and bioactivities are also discussed.

The aim of this study is to investigate the role of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 in Ganoderma atrum polysaccharide (PSG-1)-induced antitumor activity. In vitro, the apoptosis rate of S-180 cells was increased in PSG-1-induced peritoneal macrophage derived from C3H/HeN (wild-type) mice, but not from C3H/HeJ (TLR4-deficient) mice. In the S-180 tumor model, phagocytosis, NO and ROS release, phosphorylation of MAPKs and Akt, and expression of NF-κB were increased by PSG-1 in peritoneal macrophage derived from C3H/HeN mice. Furthermore, PSG-1 elevated Th1 cytokine production and enhanced the cytotoxic activity of CTL and NK cells in C3H/HeN mice. In addition, PSG-1 decreased the tumor weight and increased the apoptosis rate and caspase-3 and caspase-9 activities of tumor derived from the C3H/HeN mice. However, none of these activities were observed in C3H/HeJ mice. In summary, these findings demonstrated that the antitumor activity of PSG-1 is mediated by TLR4.

The aim of this study was to investigate the molecular mechanism underlying the immunomodulatory effect of Ganoderma atrum polysaccharide (PSG-1) in spleen lymphocytes. Our results showed that PSG-1 increased the intracellular Ca2+ concentration and calcineurin (CaN) activity. Moreover, PSG-1 was found to elevate nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) activity, but this effect could be diminished by the treatment of CaN inhibitors (cyclosporin A and FK506). PSG-1-induced interleukin (IL)-2 production was also inhibited by cyclosporin A and FK506. In addition, PSG-1 was found to significantly enhance protein kinase C (PKC) activity. PKC was involved in induction of NFAT activity by PSG-1, as evidenced by abrogation of NFAT activity by PKC inhibitor calphostin C, which significantly decreased PSG-1-induced IL-2 production. On the basis of these results, we concluded that PSG-1 may induce activation of spleen lymphocytes at least in part via the Ca2+/CaN/NFAT/IL-2 signaling pathway and the PKC/NFAT/IL-2 signaling pathway cooperatively regulated PSG-1-induced activation of spleen lymphocytes.

The effects of Lactobacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) NCU116 isolated from pickled vegetables on intestine mucosal immunity in cyclophosphamide treated mice were investigated. Animals were divided into six groups: normal group (NIM), immunosuppression group (IM), immunosuppression plus L. plantarum NCU116 groups with three different doses (NCU-H, NCU-M, and NCU-L), and plus Bifidobacterium BB12 as positive control group (BB12). Results showed that the thymus indexes of the four treatment groups were significantly higher than that of the IM group (2.02 ± 0.16) (p < 0.05) and close to the index of the NIM group (2.61 ± 0.37) at 10 days. The level of immune factor IL-2 notably increased (IM, 121 ± 9.0) (p < 0.05) and was close to 65% of NIM group’s level (230 ± 10.7). The levels of other immune factors (IFN-γ, IL-10, IL-12p70, and sIgA), the gene expression levels of IL-2 and IFN-γ, and the number of IgA-secreting cells showed similar patterns (p < 0.05). However, the level of immune factor IL-4 remarkably decreased (IM, 128 ± 10.2) (p < 0.05) and was only approximately 50% of the NIM group (154 ± 18.2). The levels of other immune factors (IL-6 and IgE) and the gene expression level of IL-6 at 10 days exhibited similar changes (p < 0.05) but showed a slight recovery at 20 days, accompanied by the altered protein expression levels of T-bet and GATA-3 in the small intestine. These findings suggest that L. plantarum NCU116 enhanced the immunity of the small intestine in the immunosuppressed mice.

•Both aqueous extracts and polysaccharide from D. officinale are shown to be non-cytotoxic and can activate macrophages.•The active component of D. officinale is a purified polysaccharide, Dendronan®, which can possibly be used for the modulation of immune response.•The increases in NO and cytokine production is possibly due to an increase in relevant mRNA (iNOS, TNF-α, IL-6) and protein (iNOS) expression.Dendrobium officinale, ranked as the first of “Nine kinds of Chinese medicinal herbs”, has been used for centuries to treat a variety of health problems. However, less is known about the active components which confer the therapeutic properties of D. officinale. In the present study, the effects of aqueous extract, crude polysaccharide and purified polysaccharide from the stems of D. officinale (Dendronan®) were examined on mouse macrophage line RAW 264.7 cells. Both aqueous extracts and polysaccharide are shown to be non-cytotoxic and can activate macrophages, resulting in enhancing phagocytic activity, up-regulating nitric oxide (NO), and influencing the cytokine production. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) showed that the increases in the secretion of NO, and cytokines are due to the increase in their mRNA expressions. Western immunoblotting revealed that Dendronan® is able to up-regulate the expression of iNOS protein. Our data suggests a molecular basis to show that the active component of D. officinale is a purified polysaccharide, Dendronan®.

•L. plantarum NCU116 showed a significant tendency to protect morphology of liver.•L. plantarum NCU116 had the potential ability to regulate lipid metabolism levels.•Effect of cholesterol-lowering may relate to expression of LDL receptor and CYP7A1.The cholesterol-lowering effect of Lactobacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) NCU116 on lipid metabolism of rats fed on a high fat diet was investigated. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into normal diet (ND) group, a high fat diet (HFD) group, HFD plus L. plantarum NCU116 groups with two different doses (NCU116-L, 108 colony forming units (CFU)/mL; NCU116-H, 109 CFU/mL). After treatment for 5 weeks, L. plantarum NCU116 had the potential ability to regulate lipid metabolism levels, morphology of liver and adipose tissues. In addition, the bacterium significantly improved gene expression of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor and cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1). These results suggest that L. plantarum NCU116 was able to alter lipid metabolism and reduce the cholesterol level, in particular, in the rats on a high fat diet through regulating gene expression of key factors relating to LDL receptor and CYP7A1.

•SCFAs production and pH value in the caecum of mice was analyzed.•Polysaccharide could stimulate the growth of colon tissue of mice.•Polysaccharide could contribute to increasing faecal moisture content of mice.•Polysaccharide could have a beneficial influence on colonic health of mice.The effect of polysaccharide from Cyclocarya paliurus leaves on mouse colon was examined. Mice were orally given polysaccharide at doses of 0.15, 0.3 and 0.6 mg/g body weight for 30 days. The results showed that colon index in the mice supplemented with the polysaccharide significantly increased as the administration time increased and the length of colon in the polysaccharide group in 30 days was longer than the control. The pH values in caecum, colon and faeces of the polysaccharide group were significantly reduced. The content of faecal moisture was significantly higher in the polysaccharide group. Furthermore, the levels of acetate, propionate and butyrate and total short fatty acids in caecum and colon of mice fed with 0.6 mg/g body weight significantly increased. Thus, polysaccharide from C. paliurus was effective in promoting colonic health.

•PSG-1 significantly improved endothelium-dependent relaxation of aorta.•PSG-1 significantly increased NO & eNOS levels in aorta of diabetic rats.•PSG-1 against endothelial dysfunction in connection with activating the PI3K/Akt/eNOS pathway.•PSG-1 against apoptosis by decreasing the ratio of Bax to Bcl-2.A newly identified polysaccharide (PSG-1) has been purified from Ganoderma atrum. The study was to investigate the protective effect of PSG-1 on diabetes-induced endothelial dysfunction in rat aorta. Rats were fed a high fat diet for 8 weeks and then injected with a low dose of streptozotocin to induce type 2 diabetes. The diabetic rats were orally treated with PSG-1 for 4 weeks. It was found that administration of PSG-1 significantly reduced levels of fasting blood glucose, improved endothelium-dependent aortic relaxation, increased levels of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), phospho-Akt (p-Akt), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and nitric oxide in the aorta from diabetic rats, compared to un-treated diabetics. These results suggested that the protective effects of PSG-1 against endothelial dysfunction may be related to activation of the PI3K/Akt/eNOS pathway.

•Polysaccharide fermentation can promote the productions of SCFAs.•Polysaccharide fermentation can drop pH value.•Glycosidic bonds with galacturonic acid might be attacked easily by gut bacteria.•Galacturonic acid might be the main producer of acetic acid.In vitro fermentation of polysaccharide from Cyclocarya paliurus leaves by human fecal inoculums was investigated by determining the changes in contents of neutral and reducing sugar and pH value, consumption of monosaccharide and production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). During fermentation, the content of neutral sugar and reducing sugar decreased as fermentation time increased except that the content of reducing sugar increased within the fermentation time 0.5 h. The pH value significantly dropped from 7.2 to 6.04. Remarkably, the greatest yields and the fastest consumption of galacturonic acid were found and the yield of glucose and arabinose were relatively high. The dominant SCFAs, which were acetic acid, propionic acid and n-butyric acid, significantly increased. These results showed that polysaccharide was partly fermented, glycosidic bonds with galacturonic acid being more susceptible to be attacked by gut bacteria and galacturonic acid might be deemed as the main producer of acetic acid.

Polysaccharide from the seeds of Plantago asiatica L. was given via oral administration to mice (0.4 g/kg body weight, 30 days) to observe its effects on mouse nutrient metabolism and colon microbiota. It was found the polysaccharide intake could lower the apparent absorption of lipid. Total triglyceride, cholesterol, and atherogenic index in blood serum with total lipid and cholesterol levels in liver of polysaccharide group mice were all significantly lower than those of the control group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the effect of the polysaccharide intake on mouse colon bacterial communities was investigated. Mice from the polysaccharide group showed a higher colon bacterial diversity than the control group. Bacteroides sp., Eubacterium sp., butyrate-producing bacteria Butyrivibrio sp., and probiotics Bifidobacterium bifidum, Lactobacillus fermentum, and Lactobacillus reuteri in mouse colon were all increased after polysaccharide intake. These indicated that the intake of polysaccharide from P. asiatica L. could be beneficial for lipid metabolism and colon microbiota.

White rice porridge and mixed grain porridge, which are often consumed in many countries, were used as two models to evaluate the effects of gum arabic on glucose levels and microbial short-chain fatty acids (SCFA). Gum arabic was incorporated into the two porridges individually. Apparent viscosity of the two porridges was significantly increased, and their glucose productions during gastrointestinal digestion were notably lowered (p < 0.05). Diffused glucose amount was significantly decreased after gum arabic addition (p < 0.05). Furthermore, blood glucose rise after oral administration of porridges in mice was considerably lowered after fortified with gum arabic (p < 0.05). Microbial SCFA production during in vitro fermentation of porridges was significantly increased after gum arabic addition, which may also have beneficial effects on reducing postprandial glycemic response. Therefore, gum arabic may be a helpful ingredient, which could be added in porridges to have benefits for the reduction of postprandial glycemic response.

Ganoderma atrum is one species of edible and pharmaceutical mushroom with various biological activities. Recently, a novel polysaccharide, PSG-1, was purified from G. atrum. The antitumor activity and its mechanism of action were studied. In vitro, PSG-1 has little effect on inhibiting proliferation of CT26 tumor cells. However, the tumor size was significantly decreased in PSG-1-treated mice. The results showed that PSG-1 induced apoptosis in CT26 cells. Moreover, the intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) level and protein kinase A (PKA) activity were markedly increased in PSG-1-treated mice. In contrast, the contents of cyclic GMP and DAG and the PKC activity were decreased. Similarly, the expression of PKA protein was upregulated, while PKC protein expression in PSG-1-treated group was lowered. Additionally, PSG-1 increased the immune organ index and serum biochemistry parameter. In general, PSG-1 enhances the antitumor immune response, induces apoptosis in CT26-bearing mice, and could be a safe and effective adjuvant for tumor therapy or functional food.

The effect of carrot juice fermented with Lactobacillus plantarum NCU116 on high-fat and low-dose streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 2 diabetes in rats was studied. Rats were randomly divided into five groups: non-diabetes mellitus (NDM), untreated diabetes mellitus (DM), DM plus L. plantarum NCU116 (NCU), DM plus fermented carrot juice with L. plantarum NCU116 (FCJ), and DM plus non-fermented carrot juice (NFCJ). Treatments of NCU and FCJ for 5 weeks were found to favorably regulate blood glucose, hormones, and lipid metabolism in the diabetic rats, accompanied by an increase in short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) in the colon. In addition, NCU and FCJ had restored the antioxidant capacity and morphology of the pancreas and kidney and upregulated mRNA of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor, cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), glucose transporter-4 (GLUT-4), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ). These results have for the first time demonstrated that L. plantarum NCU116 and the fermented carrot juice had the potential ability to ameliorate type 2 diabetes in rats.

The effect of Lactobacillus plantarum NCU116 on liver function, oxidative stress and lipid metabolism in rats with high fat diet induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) was studied. The rats were divided into four groups: the normal diet (ND) group; the high fat diet (HFD) group; and HFD plus L. plantarum NCU116 as two doses (NCU116-L, 108 CFU mL−1; NCU116-H, 109 CFU mL−1) groups. Treatment of L. plantarum NCU116 for 5 weeks was found to restore liver function and oxidative stress in rats with NAFLD, and decrease the levels of fat accumulation in the liver. In addition, the bacterium significantly reduced endotoxin and proinflammatory cytokines, and regulated bacterial flora in the colon and the expression of lipid metabolism in the liver. These results suggest that possible underlying mechanisms for the beneficial effect of L. plantarum NCU116 on NAFLD may include two pathways of downregulating lipogenesis and upregulating lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation related gene expression.

Ganoderma is a precious health-care edible medicinal fungus in China. A novel Ganoderma atrum polysaccharide (PSG-1) is the main bioactive component. We investigated the antitumor effect and molecular mechanisms of PSG-1. It exhibited no significant effect on cell proliferation directly. In contrast, administration of PSG-1 markedly suppressed tumor growth in CT26 tumor-bearing mice. It was observed that PSG-1 caused apoptosis in CT26 cells. Apoptosis was associated with loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, enhancement of mitochondrial cytochrome c release and intracellular ROS production, elevation of p53 and Bax expression, downregulation of Bcl-2, and the activation of caspase-9 and -3. Moreover, PSG-1 enhanced immune organ index and promoted lymphocyte proliferation as well as cytokine levels in serum. Taken together, our data indicate that PSG-1 has potential antitumor activity in vivo by inducing apoptosis via mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway and enhances host immune system function. Therefore, PSG-1 could be a safe and effective antitumor, bioactive agent or functional food.

The saliva, gastric and intestinal digestion of polysaccharide from Plantago asiatica L. seeds was investigated in vitro. It was found that salivary amylase had no effect on the polysaccharide; however, the polysaccharide was influenced in later gastrointestinal digestion. A steady decrease in molecular weight (Mw) of the polysaccharide from 1903.1 ± 93.0 to 4.7 ± 0.2 kDa was observed as digestion time increased. Meanwhile, the reducing ends were increased from 0.157 ± 0.009 to 0.622 ± 0.026 mM, indicating the decrease of Mw may due to the breakdown of glycosidic bonds. In addition, there was no monosaccharide released throughout the whole digestion period, suggesting that the gastrointestinal digestion did not result in a production of free monosaccharide. These results may provide some information on the digestion of polysaccharide from P. asiatica L. in vitro, and may contribute to the methods of studying the digestion of other carbohydrates.Highlights► Saliva, gastric and intestinal digestion of polysaccharide was studied in vitro. ► Salivary amylase had no effect on the polysaccharide. ► Polysaccharide molecular weight decrease was found in gastrointestinal digestion. ► Reducing ends increased but no monosaccharide released during the digestion. ► Polysaccharide molecular weight decrease may due to breakdown of glycosidic bonds.

Physiological properties of homogenized and non-homogenized polysaccharide from the seeds of Plantago asiatica L., including antioxidant capacity and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production, were compared in this study. High pressure homogenization decreased particle size of the polysaccharide, and changed the surface topography from large flake-like structure to smaller porous chips. FT-IR showed that high pressure homogenization did not alter the primary structure of the polysaccharide. However, high pressure homogenization increased antioxidant capacity of the polysaccharide, evaluated by 4 antioxidant capacity assays (hydroxyl radical-scavenging, superoxide radical-scavenging, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl radical (DPPH)-scavenging and lipid peroxidation inhibition). Additionally, the production of total SCFA, propionic acid and n-butyric acid in ceca and colons of mice significantly increased after dieting supplementation with homogenized polysaccharide. These results showed that high pressure homogenization treatment could be a promising approach for the production of value-added polysaccharides in the food industry.Highlights► High pressure homogenization decreased the particle size of polysaccharide. ► High pressure homogenization changed the surface topography of polysaccharide. ► Antioxidant capacity of the polysaccharide was improved after homogenization. ► SCFA production of the polysaccharide was increased after homogenization.

Ganoderma atrum has attracted great attention for its antitumor activity. However, the mechanism remains unclear. A G. atrum polysaccharide (PSG-1) showed pronounced antitumor activity in this study. PSG-1 did not kill CT26 cells directly, but inhibited the proliferation of CT26 cells via the activation of peritoneal macrophages (MΦ). In vivo, PSG-1 significantly suppressed the tumor growth in CT26 tumor-bearing mice. The treatment caused a significant increase in the immune organ index and the phagocytosis of macrophages. The production of TNF-α, IL-1β and nitric oxide also increased. Furthermore, we found that PSG-1 acted on Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, signaled through p38 MAPK pathway, then activated NF-κB and stimulated TNF-α production. We further found that PSG-1 increased the expression of TLR4 and NF-κB, the degradation of IκBα and the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK. In summary, we have demonstrated that PSG-1 could activate macrophages via TLR4-dependent signaling pathways, improve immunity and inhibit tumor growth.Highlights► We examine the Ganoderma atrum polysaccharide antitumor activity in vitro. ► G. atrum polysaccharide suppressed the tumor growth in tumor-bearing mice. ► G. atrum polysaccharide could activated NF-κB and stimulated TNF-α production. ► G. atrum polysaccharide could improve immunity and inhibit tumor growth.

Ganoderma atrum has been used as a traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. In this study, the antitumor activity of a novel G. atrum polysaccharide (PSG-1) was investigated in vitro and in vivo using S180 tumor-bearing mice. The results showed that PSG-1 significantly inhibited the proliferation of S180 via the activation of macrophages in a dose-dependent manner. PSG-1-primed macrophages exhibited a higher tumoricidal activity than untreated macrophages. Administration of PSG-1 significantly inhibited the growth of transplantable sarcoma S180-bearing mice and increased macrophage phagocytosis and the levels of cytokines and nitride oxide. Expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 in the membrane was markedly increased in PSG-1-treated groups, suggesting that it may be a possible receptor for PSG-1. PSG-1 also promoted the translocation of the p65 subunit of NF-κB from cytosol to nucleus and the degradation of IκBα. Moreover, the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase in macrophages was improved by PSG-1 in a dose-dependent manner. Therefore, it is suggested that PSG-1 may elicit its antitumor effect by improving immune system functions through TLR4-mediated NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.

Effects of microwave irradiation on microbial short-chain fatty acid production and the activites of extracellular enzymes during in vitro fermentation of the polysaccharide from Plantago asiatica L. were investigated in this study. It was found that the apparent viscosity, average molecular weight, and particle size of the polysaccharide decreased after microwave irradiation. Reducing sugar amount increased with molecular weight decrease, suggesting the degradation may derive from glycosidic bond rupture. The polysaccharide surface topography was changed from large flakelike structure to smaller chips. FT-IR showed that microwave irradiation did not alter the primary functional groups in the polysaccharide. However, short-chain fatty acid productions of the polysaccharide during in vitro fermentation significantly increased after microwave irradiation. Activities of microbial extracellular enzymes xylanase, arabinofuranosidase, xylosidase, and glucuronidase in fermentation cultures supplemented with microwave irradiation treated polysaccharide were also generally higher than those of untreated polysaccharide. This showed that microwave irradiation could be a promising degradation method for the production of value-added polysaccharides.

The structure of a novel bioactive polysaccharide fraction from Ganoderma atrum (PSG-1) was characterised by methylation analysis and 1D/2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Sugar analysis revealed that PSG-1 was composed of glucose (Glc), mannose (Man), galactose (Gal) and galacturonic acid (GalA) in molar ratio of 4.91:1:1.28:0.71. Methylation and GC–MS analysis indicated that the main linkage type was 1,3-linked-Glcp (21.08%), followed by T-Glcp (18.68%), 1,3,6-Glcp (12.97%), 1,4-Galp (12.70%), 1,6-Glcp (12.33%), 1,2-Manp (8.06%), 1,4-GalpA (6.15%), 1,4-Manp (4.55%) and 1,4,6-Glcp (3.24%). Combined the methylation analysis results with 1D (1H, 13C) and 2D (DQF-COSY, TOCSY, HSQC and HMBC) NMR spectroscopy, a preliminary structure of PSG-1 was proposed as follows:Figure optionsHighlights► A novel polysaccharide from Ganoderma atrum (PSG-1) was extracted and purified. ► Structure of PSG-1 was reported by using methylation and NMR spectroscopy. ► PSG-1 was mainly composed of Glc, Gal, Man and GalA (4.91:1:1.28:0.71). ► PSG-1 was a heteropolysaccharide comprised a backbone of 1,3- and 1,6-Glcp branched at O-3 and O-6 position.

PLP-3 (Plantago asiatica L. polysaccharide 3) was isolated and purified from the seeds of Plantago asiatica L. Its structure characters were elucidated by monosaccharide composition analysis, partial acid hydrolysis and methylation analysis, combined with FT-IR, GC/MS, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy. PLP-3 was found to be arabinoxylan, containing glucuronic acid. It was consisted of β-1,4-linked Xylp backbone with short side chains attached to its O-2 (1,2,4-linked Xylp, 17.87%) or O-3 (1,3,4-linked Xylp, 24.24%) positions. The main terminal residues were T-linked Araf (8.13%), T-linked Xylp (15.58%) and T-linked GlcAp (13.22%). Small amounts of other residues were also found in PLP-3, such as 1,2,5-linked Araf, 1,2-linked Rhap, T-linked Glcp and T-linked Galp. A possible molecular structure was proposed.Highlights► Polysaccharide (PLP-3) from the seeds of Plantago asiatica L. was highly branched arabinoxylan, containing glucuronic acid. ► PLP-3 had β-1,4-linked Xylp backbone, branching at its O-2 (17.87%) or O-3 (24.24%) positions. ► The main terminal residues were T-linked Xylp, T-linked Araf and T-linked GlcAp.

In this paper, polysaccharides were extracted from the seeds of Plantago asiatica L. with hot water and separated into three fractions PLP-1 (18.9%), PLP-2 (52.6%) and PLP-3 (28.5%) by Sephacryl™ S-400 HR column chomatography. The main fraction PLP-2's structure was elucidated using oxalic acid hydrolysis, partial acid hydrolysis, methylation, GC, GC–MS, 1D and 2D NMR. PLP-2 was composed of Rha, Ara, Xyl, Man, Glc and Gal, in a molar ratio of 0.05:1.00:1.90:0.05:0.06:0.10. Its uronic acid was GlcA. PLP-2 was highly branched heteroxylan which consisted of a β-1,4-linked Xylp backbone with side chains attached to O-2 or O-3. The side chains consisted of β-T-linked Xylp, α-T-linked Araf, α-T-linked GlcAp, β-Xylp-(1 → 3)-α-Araf and α-Araf-(1 → 3)-β-Xylp, etc. Based on these results, the structure of PLP-2 was proposed.Highlights► Polysaccharides from the seeds of Plantago asiatica L. were separated into PLP-1, PLP-2 and PLP-3. ► PLP-2 was composed of Rha, Ara, Xyl, Man, Glc and Gal (0.05:1.00:1.90:0.05:0.06:0.10). ► PLP-2 was highly branched heteroxylan which consisted of a β-1,4-linked Xylp backbone. ► The structure for PLP-2 was proposed.

The present study aimed at investigating the mechanism of interactions between calcium and the psyllium polysaccharide. Plantago asiatica L. crude polysaccharide (PLCP) was subjected to ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to yield calcium-depleted polysaccharide named PLCP-E. There was essentially no difference in the structure between PLCP-E and PLCP. However, PLCP-E exhibited a much lower apparent viscosity compared to that of PLCP. PLCP was treated with sodium hydroxide to deplete ferulic acid. The resultant material was named PLCP-FAS, which also exhibited lower viscosity. Adding Ca2+ could both increase apparent viscosity of PLCP-E and PLCP-FAS, but only PLCP-E could keep the high viscosity when dialysis was carried out to remove free Ca2+ in the solution. Thermal analysis showed that the thermal stability of the polysaccharide was reduced after EDTA chelation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis showed that PLCP-E was flaky and curly aggregation, while PLCP was mostly filamentous in appearance. The results suggested that there are strong interactions between Ca2+ and the polysaccharide. The interactions contributed to the high viscosity, weak gelling property, and thermal stability of the polysaccharide.

Mice (20.0 ± 2.0 g, n = 48 per group) were given 30 days oral administration of polysaccharide from Plantago asiatica L. seeds at the dose of 0.4 g/kg body weight by gavage to investigate the effects of the polysaccharide on mouse colon. Results showed that the concentrations of total short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), acetic, propionic, and n-butyric acids in mouse colonic content of polysaccharide treated group were all significantly higher than that of control group (water) (p < 0.05). In addition, moisture of mouse colonic content of polysaccharide treated group was also notably higher than that of the control group (p < 0.05) indicating the intake of polysaccharide from P. asiatica L. resulted in a stronger water-holding capacity for colonic content throughout the experimental period. Furthermore, a decreased pH (from 7.5 ± 0.1 to 7.2 ± 0.1) was observed in mouse colon of the polysaccharide treated group compared with the control group (pH from 7.5 ± 0.1 to 7.5 ± 0.1). These results suggested that the intake of the polysaccharide from P. asiatica L. might be beneficial for the colon health.

Tea glycoprotein (TGP) is a glycoconjugate purified from the leaves of green tea (Camellia sinensis). The objective of this study was to evaluate the immunomodulatory effects of TGP on dendritic cells. Murine bone marrow cells were cultured with recombinant mouse (rm)GM-CSF and rmIL-4 for 6 days followed by another 2 days in the presence of TGP or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The results showed that TGP did not have significant inhibition on cell proliferation and apoptosis. Compared with untreated cells, dendritic cells treated with TGP (50 μg/ml) expressed higher levels of MHC class II molecules and major co-stimulatory molecules such as CD 86, CD 80 and CD 40. However, the endocytic activity was impaired markedly. TGP could enhance the secretion of IL-12p70, but inhibit IL-10 and NO secretion. The activation of antigen-presenting ability and the lymphocyte proliferation of mixed lymphocyte reaction by dendritic cells was also enhanced after treatment with TGP. In addition, an enhanced expression of CCR7 mRNA of dendritic cells treated with TGP was similar to dendritic cells treated with LPS. Taken together, TGP was capable of promoting both phenotypic and functional maturation of murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells in vitro, which promises the potential clinical application of TGP.

•Carboxymethylated PLCP enhances the expression of surface molecules of DCs.•Carboxymethylated PLCP enhances the stimulatory capacity of MLR of DCs.•Carboxymethylated PLCP stimulates the secretion of IL-12p70 cytokine of DCs.•Carboxymethylated PLCP induces the mRNA synthesis of chemokine receptors of DCs.•Carboxymethylated polysaccharides can be used as immunotherapeutic adjuvant.Carboxymethylation is a well-known modification process for polysaccharides. To evaluate the biological availability of carboxymethyl, polysaccharide from the seeds of Plantago asiatica L. (PLCP) was carboxymethylated (CM-PLCP) and the immunomodulatory activities of five CM-PLCPs of gradient degree of substitution (DS) from 0.40 to 0.62 were determined on dendritic cells (DCs) in vitro. Compared with DCs treated with PLCP, DCs treated with CM-PLCP of DS0.50, DS0.55, DS0.62, as well as CD86 and CD80, expressed higher levels of MHCII, CD86 and CD80 surface molecules. In addition, the secretion of IL-12p70 and the mRNA of CCR7 and CXCR4 chemokines were increased, while the endocytosis activities were inhibited. Correspondingly, stronger mixed lymphocyte reactions were induced by the DCs treated with the CM-PLCPs. The results showed that carboxymethylation modification of relevant high DS can enhance the DC maturation-inducing function of PLCP, indicating the potential application of carboxymethylated polysaccharide as an immunotherapeutic adjuvant.Download full-size image

•MP was isolated from jiangxiangru and its composition was studied.•MP was able to overcome the cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression.•It significantly raised the T-AOC, CAT, SOD and GSH-PX level.•It also raised the spleen and thymus indices.•It decreased the MDA level in immunosuppressed mice.Polysaccharide MP was isolated from Mosla chinensis Maxim cv. jiangxiangru. It was composed of rhamnose, arabinose, xylose, mannose, glucose and galactose in a molar ratio of 5.364:12.260:3.448:12.260:32.567:30.651, with 11.00% ± 0.24% uronic acid and 9.046% ± 0.04% protein. Its antioxidant activity on the cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed mice was investigated. The spleen and the thymus indices were investigated, and the biochemical parameters were evaluated in three organs (liver, heart and kidney). MP was able to overcome the cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression and can significantly raise the T-AOC, CAT, SOD and GSH-PX level. It also raised the spleen and thymus indices and decreased the MDA level in mice. MP could play an important role during the prevention process of oxidative damage in immunological system.Download full-size image

Furan (C4H4O) has been classified as a possible animal and human carcinogen by many international agencies. The formation of furan in three sugar–glycine models using glucose, fructose, and sucrose was investigated using headspace gas chromatography mass spectrometry method (HS-GC–MS) with various dual combinations of three important heat processing conditions, i.e. pH, temperature, and heating time. Results indicated that furan levels from sugar–glycine model systems during the thermal processing can be attributed to selective sugar types, pH, temperature, and heating time. In glucose–glycine and fructose–glycine system, the lowest furan level was detected in acid condition but in sucrose–glycine system furan formed significantly lower (P < 0.05) in acidic conditions the lowest furan level was found in alkaline conditions. The furan levels were observed to increase with heating time in all three model systems. Furthermore, less furan was generated in non-reducing sugar system (sucrose) than in reducing sugar system (glucose and fructose). Therefore, they demonstrate the possibility of limiting the formation of furan in heat processed foods by both the careful selection of carbohydrates (i.e. non-reducing sugars and reducing sugars) ingredients and appropriate processing conditions.

The aim of this study was to investigate the signaling pathways involved in the macrophage activation by Ganoderma atrum polysaccharide (PSG-1) and elucidate the molecular mechanism of PSG-1-induced signal transduction in the regulation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α secretion. Our results illustrated that the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways were simultaneously activated and involved in PSG-1-induced TNF-α secretion in RAW264.7 cells. Moreover, our results also demonstrated that the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway was stimulated and played an important role in the PSG-1 induced TNF-α secretion. Additionally, the present study showed that nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation by PSG-1 was triggered by PI3K/Akt/MAPK pathway and NF-κB participated in PSG-1 stimulated TNF-α production. In conclusion, we have elucidated the mechanism of PSG-1-mediated immunomodulatory activities, and provide a theoretical basis for the potential of PSG-1 as a novel immunomodulating agent.Highlights► We elucidated the mechanism of PSG-1-mediated immunomodulatory activities. ► PI3K/Akt/MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway was activated by PSG-1 in RAW264.7 cells. ► PI3K/Akt/MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway was involved in PSG-1-induced TNF-α secretion. ► Our results show that PSG-1 has the potential as a novel immunomodulating agent.

•PSG-1 was re-purified and the structure was re-elucidated with more evidences.•β-(1 → 3)-glucan was identified as the backbone with branch point at O-6 of glucose.•Long β-(1 → 6)-glucose side chain was proposed.•β-(1 → 4)-GlcA was found in the side chain of PSG-1.The fine structure in terms of backbone and branch chain features of a bioactive polysaccharide from Ganoderma atrum (PSG-1) was re-elucidated systematically using high performance anion-exchange chromatography (HPAEC), methylation and GLC–MS analysis, and 1D & 2D NMR spectroscopy. Monosaccharide composition analysis revealed that PSG-1-F0.2 fraction mainly consisted of glucose (73.8%) and glucuronic acid (15.3%), with small amount of mannose (5.7%) and galactose (5.2%). Based on methylation, multistep partial acid hydrolysis and NMR study, were proposed to substitute at the O-6 position of β-(1 → 3)-glucan. The small amount of mannose and galactose residues were considered to be from the other fraction in PSG which was very difficult to be separated from PSG-1-F0.2. This revised structure as an acidic β-(1 → 3, 1 → 6)-glucan is considered to be more accurate than the previous proposal of PSG-1.