Due to the key roles of auxins as master regulators of plant growth, there is considerable interest in the development of compounds with auxin-like properties for growth management and weed control applications. Herein, we describe the design and multistep synthesis of ten compounds bearing combinations of functional groups commonly associated with auxin-type properties. Following synthesis, these compounds were tested against multiple weed species as well as sweet corn. In general, while these structures were not quite as active as commercial auxin mimic herbicides, multiple compounds exhibited broadleaf weed activity with concurrent selectivity in sweet corn (Zea mays L. var. saccharum). In addition, differential results were observed upon subtle changes to structure, providing insights into the structural properties required for activity.

For drug delivery purposes, the ability to conveniently attach a targeting moiety that will deliver drugs to cells and then enable controlled release of the active molecule after localization is desirable. Toward this end, we designed and synthesized clickable and photocleavable lipid analogue 1 to maximize the efficiency of bioconjugation and triggered release. This compound contains a dibenzocyclooctyne group for bioorthogonal derivatization linked via a photocleavable 2-nitrobenzyl moiety at the headgroup of a synthetic lipid backbone for targeting to cell membranes. To assess delivery and release using this system, we report fluorescence-based assays for liposomal modification and photocleavage in solution as well as through surface immobilization to demonstrate successful liposome functionalization and photoinduced release. In addition, fluorophore delivery to and release from live cells was confirmed and characterized using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry analysis in which 1 was delivered to cells, derivatized, and photocleaved. Finally, drug delivery studies were performed using an azide-tagged analogue of camptothecin, a potent anticancer drug that is challenging to deliver due to poor solubility. In this case, the ester attachment of the azide tag acted as a caging group for release by intracellular esterases rather than through photocleavage. This resulted in a dose-dependent response in the presence of liposomes containing delivery agent 1, confirming the ability of this compound to stimulate delivery to the cytoplasm of cells.

•This review article covers advancements in large-scale identification of phosphoinositide-binding proteins using various techniques.•The development of affinity chromatography and optimization of this approach for global analysis is discussed.•The use of microarray analysis as a tool for identifying phosphoinositide-binding proteins is discussed, including methods involving the immobilization of proteins, individual lipids and membrane motifs.•Initial approach using activity-based protein profiling for the collective labeling and identification of phosphoinositides-binding proteins is described.•Finally, various strategies for the computational prediction of phosphoinositide-binding proteins are detailed.Phosphoinositide lipids (PIPns) control numerous critical biological pathways, typically through the regulation of protein function driven by non-covalent protein–lipid binding interactions. Despite the importance of these systems, the unraveling of the full scope of protein–PIPn interactions has represented a significant challenge due to the massive complexity associated with these events, including the large number of diverse proteins that bind to these lipids, variations in the mechanisms by which proteins bind to lipids, and the presence of multiple distinct PIPn isomers. As a result of this complexity, global methods in which numerous proteins that bind PIPns can be identified and characterized simultaneously from complex samples, which have been enabled by key technological advancements, have become popular as an efficient means for tackling this challenge. This review article provides an overview of advancements in large-scale methods for profiling protein–PIPn binding, including experimental methods, such as affinity enrichment, microarray analysis and activity-based protein profiling, as well as computational methods, and combined computational/experimental efforts.

Copper-free click chemistry was employed to derivatize membrane bilayers. This approach uses an azido-lipid conjugate presented on liposomes, which can be labeled in bioorthogonal fashion viacyclooctyne-tagged reagents. An immobilization-based approach using streptavidin-coated microplates was exploited to evaluate membrane derivatization.

Signaling lipids control many of the most important biological pathways, typically by recruiting cognate protein binding targets to cell surfaces, thereby regulating both their function and subcellular localization. A critical family of signaling lipids is that of the phosphatidylinositol polyphosphates (PIPns), which is composed of seven isomers that vary based on phosphorylation pattern. A key protein that is activated upon PIPn binding is Akt, which then plays important roles in regulating the cell cycle, and is thus aberrant in disease. Characterization of protein–PIPn binding interactions is hindered by the complexity of the membrane environment and of the PIPn structures. Herein, we describe two rapid assays of use for characterizing protein–PIPn binding interactions. First, a microplate-based binding assay was devised to characterize the binding of effectors to immobilized synthetic PIPn headgroup-biotin conjugates corresponding to all seven isomers. The assay was implemented for simultaneous analysis of Akt-PH domain, indicating PI(3,4,5)P3 and PI(3,4)P2 as the primary ligands. In addition, density-dependant studies indicated that the amount of ligand immobilized on the surface affected the amplitude of protein binding, but not the affinity, for Akt-PH. Since the PIPn ligand motifs used in this analysis lack the membrane environment and glycerolipid backbone, yet still exhibit high-affinity protein binding, these results narrow down the structural requirements for Akt recognition. Additionally, binding detection was also achieved through microarray analysis via the robotic pin printing of ligands onto glass slides in a miniaturized format. Here, fluorescence-based detection provided sensitive detection of binding using minimal amounts of materials. Due to their high-throughput and versatile attributes, these assays provide invaluable tools for probing and perturbing protein–membrane binding interactions.Graphical abstractHighlights► We have developed assays employing microarray analysis using 96-well microplates and robotic pin printing onto glass slides for high-throughput analysis of protein–phosphoinositide binding interactions. ► For these assays, we designed and synthesized biotin-conjugates corresponding to the headgroups of all seven naturally occurring phosphoinositide isomers. ► Binding analysis was performed by immobilizing synthetic phosphoinositide-conjugates onto surfaces followed by antibody-based detection of protein binding. ► These platforms were applied to study the phosphoinositide-binding specificity of the PH domain of Akt and understand the effects of ligand surface density on protein binding.

Lipids play critical roles in a litany of physiological and pathophysiological events, often through the regulation of protein function. These activities are generally difficult to characterize, however, because the membrane environment in which lipids operate is very complex. Moreover, lipids have a diverse range of biological functions, including the recruitment of proteins to membrane surfaces, actions as small-molecule ligands, and covalent protein modification through lipidation. Advancements in the development of bioorthogonal reactions have facilitated the study of lipid activities by providing the ability to selectively label probes bearing bioorthogonal tags within complex biological samples.In this Account, we discuss recent efforts to harness the beneficial properties of bioorthogonal labeling strategies in elucidating lipid function. Initially, we summarize strategies for the design and synthesis of lipid probes bearing bioorthogonal tags. This discussion includes issues to be considered when deciding where to incorporate the tag, particularly the presentation within a membrane environment. We then present examples of the application of these probes to the study of lipid activities, with a particular emphasis on the elucidation of protein–lipid binding interactions. One such application involves the development of lipid and membrane microarray analysis as a high-throughput platform for characterizing protein-binding interactions. Here we discuss separate strategies for binding analysis involving the immobilization of either whole liposomes or simplified isolated lipid structures. In addition, we present the different strategies that have been used to derivatize membrane surfaces via bioorthogonal reactions, either by using this chemistry to produce functionalized lipid scaffolds that can be incorporated into membranes or through direct modification of intact membrane surfaces.We then provide an overview of the development of lipid activity probes to label and identify proteins that bind to a particular lipid from complex biological samples. This process involves the strategy of activity-based proteomics, in which proteins are collectively labeled on the basis of function (in this case, ligand binding) rather than abundance. We summarize strategies for designing and applying lipid activity probes that allow for the selective labeling and characterization of protein targets. Additionally, we briefly comment on applications other than studying protein–lipid binding. These include the generation of new lipid structures with beneficial properties, labeling of tagged lipids in live cells for studies involving fluorescence imaging, elucidation of covalent protein lipidation, and identification of biosynthetic lipid intermediates. These applications illustrate the early phase of the promising field of applying bioorthogonal chemistry to the study of lipid function.

Phosphatidylinositol polyphosphate lipids, such as phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate [PI(3,4,5)P3], regulate critical biological processes, many of which are aberrant in disease. These lipids often act as site-specific ligands in interactions that enforce membrane association of protein binding partners. Herein, we describe the development of bifunctional activity probes corresponding to the headgroup of PI(3,4,5)P3 that are effective for identifying and characterizing protein binding partners from complex samples, namely cancer cell extracts. These probes contain both a photoaffinity tag for covalent labeling of target proteins and a secondary handle for subsequent detection or manipulation of labeled proteins. Probes bearing different secondary tags were exploited, either by direct attachment of a fluorescent dye for optical detection or by using an alkyne that can be derivatized after protein labeling via click chemistry. First, we describe the design and modular synthetic strategy used to generate multiple probes with different reporter tags of use for characterizing probe-labeled proteins. Next, we report initial labeling studies using purified protein, the PH domain of Akt, in which probes were found to label this target, as judged by in-gel detection. Furthermore, protein labeling was abrogated by controls including competition with an unlabeled PI(3,4,5)P3 headgroup analogue as well as through protein denaturation, indicating specific labeling. In addition, probes featuring linkers of different lengths between the PI(3,4,5)P3 headgroup and photoaffinity tag led to variations in protein labeling, indicating that a shorter linker was more effective in this case. Finally, proteomic labeling studies were performed using cell extracts; labeled proteins were observed by in-gel detection and characterized using postlabeling with biotin, affinity chromatography, and identification via tandem mass spectrometry. These studies yielded a total of 265 proteins, including both known and novel candidate PI(3,4,5)P3-binding proteins.

Covering: 2006 up to June 2010, but also including representative examples of prior work

In global proteomic applications that focus on the characterization of proteins that have been derivatized using bioorthogonal chemistry, a challenge persists in the release of labeled proteins from supports used for purification. In this issue, Yang and coworkers (2010) present a detailed study of the diazobenzene-cleavable linker system as an effective solution for proteomic studies.

A modular photocurrent generation system, based on amphiphilic porphyrin and fullerene species assembled in a tethered lipid bilayer matrix, is reported here. The key findings are (1) the amount of photoactive species can be quantitatively controlled in each leaflet of the bilayer and (2) the sequential formation of the bilayer allows a directional organization of these agents on electrodes. Photocurrent generation from seven differently configured photoactive bilayers is studied, which reveals several critical factors in achieving efficient photoinduced electron transfer across lipid membranes. Detailed fluorescence characterization is performed on porphyrin samples either in liposomes or surface-tethered bilayers; and the observed fluorescence quenching is correlated with photocurrents generated from the electrode-immobilized lipid films. The potential usefulness of this lipid-based approach is discussed in connection to several existing molecular photovoltaic systems.

Membrane lipids act as important regulators of a litany of important physiological and pathophysiological events. Many of them act as site-specific ligands for cytosolic proteins in binding events that recruit receptors to the cell surface and control both protein function and subcellular localization. Phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPns) are a family of signaling lipids that regulate numerous cellular processes by interacting with a myriad of protein binding modules. Characterization of PIPn-binding proteins has been hampered by the lack of a rapid and convenient quantitative assay. Herein, microplate-based detection is presented as an effective approach to characterizing protein-PIPn binding interactions at the molecular level. With this assay, the binding of proteins to isolated PIPn headgroups is detected with high sensitivity using a platform that is amenable to high-throughput screening. In the studies described herein, biotinylated PI-(4,5)-P2 headgroup analogue 1 was designed, synthesized, and immobilized onto 96-well streptavidin-coated microplates to study receptor binding. This assay was used to characterize the binding of the PH domain of β-spectrin to this headgroup. The high affinity interaction that was detected for surface association (Kd, surf = 6 nM ± 3), demonstrates that receptor binding modules can form high affinity interactions with lipid headgroups outside of a membrane environment. The results also indicate the feasibility of the assay for rapid characterization of PIPn-binding proteins as well as the promise for high-throughput analysis of protein-PIPn binding interactions. Finally, this assay was also employed to characterize the inhibition of the binding of receptors to the PIPn-derivatized microplates using solution phase competitors. This showcases the viability of this assay for rapid screening of inhibitors of PIPn-binding proteins.

In recent years, a number of bioorthogonal reactions have been developed, exemplified by click chemistry, that enable the efficient formation of a specific product, even within a highly complex chemical environment. While the exquisite selectivity and reliability of these transformations have led to their broad application in diverse research areas, they have proven to be particularly beneficial to biological studies. In this regard, the ability to rationally incorporate reactive tags onto a biomolecular target and subsequently achieve high selectivity in tag derivatization within a complex biological sample has revolutionized the toolbox that is available for addressing fundamental issues. Herein, an introduction to the impact of click chemistry and other bioorthogonal reactions on the study of biological systems is presented. This includes discussion of the philosophy behind click chemistry, the details and benefits of bioorthogonal reactions that have been developed, and examples of recent innovative approaches that have effectively exploited these transformations to study cellular processes. For the latter, the impacts of bioorthogonal reactions on drug design (i.e., in situ combinatorial drug design), biomolecule labeling and detection (site-specific derivatization of proteins, viruses, sugars, DNA, RNA, and lipids), and the recent strategy of activity-based protein profiling are highlighted.

Cell membrane lipids have been identified as key participants in cell signaling activities. One important role is their involvement as site-specific ligands in protein−membrane binding interactions, which result in the anchoring of peripheral proteins onto cellular membranes. These events generally regulate protein function and localization and have been implicated in both normal physiological processes and those pertaining to disease state onset. Thus, it is important to elucidate the details of interactions at the molecular level, such as lipid-binding specificities and affinities, the location of receptor binding domains and multivalency in binding. For this purpose, we have designed and developed azido-tagged lipid analogues as conveniently functionalizable lipid probe scaffolds. Herein, we report the design and synthesis of the initial structure of this type, diacylglycerol analogue 2, which contains an azide tag at the sn-1 position of the lipid headgroup. Direct functionalization of this compound with a range of reporter groups has been performed to illustrate the facile access to probes of use for characterizing binding. Quantitative lipid-binding studies using protein kinase C, a known DAG-binding receptor, demonstrate that these probes are active mimetics of natural DAG. Thus, these DAG probes will serve as robust sensors for studies aimed at understanding binding interactions and as precursors for the development of analogous probes of more complex phospholipids and glycolipids.

Copper-free click chemistry was employed to derivatize membrane bilayers. This approach uses an azido-lipid conjugate presented on liposomes, which can be labeled in bioorthogonal fashion viacyclooctyne-tagged reagents. An immobilization-based approach using streptavidin-coated microplates was exploited to evaluate membrane derivatization.