Three rationally designed glucose–platinum conjugates (Glc–Pts) were synthesized and their biological activities evaluated. The Glc–Pts, 1–3, exhibit high levels of cytotoxicity toward a panel of cancer cells. The subcellular target and cellular uptake mechanism of the Glc–Pts were elucidated. For uptake into cells, Glc–Pt 1 exploits both glucose and organic cation transporters, both widely overexpressed in cancer. Compound 1 preferentially accumulates in and annihilates cancer, compared to normal epithelial, cells in vitro.

The monofunctional platinum anticancer agent phenanthriplatin generates covalent adducts with the purine bases guanine and adenine. Preferential nucleotide binding was investigated by using a polymerase stop assay and linear DNA amplification with a 163-base pair DNA double helix. Similarly to cisplatin, phenanthriplatin forms the majority of adducts at guanosine residues, but significant differences in both the number and position of platination sites emerge when comparing results for the two complexes. Notably, the monofunctional complex generates a greater number of polymerase-halting lesions at adenosine residues than does cisplatin. Studies with 9-methyladenine reveal that, under abiological conditions, phenanthriplatin binds to the N¹ or N⁷ position of 9-methyladenine in approximately equimolar amounts. By contrast, comparable reactions with 9-methylguanine afforded only the N⁷-bound species. Both of the 9-methyladenine linkage isomers (N¹ and N⁷) exist as two diastereomeric species, arising from hindered rotation of the aromatic ligands about their respective platinum–nitrogen bonds. Eyring analysis of rate constants extracted from variable-temperature NMR spectroscopic data revealed that the activation energies for ligand rotation in the N¹-bound platinum complex and the N⁷-linkage isomers are comparable. Finally, a kinetic analysis indicated that phenanthriplatin reacts more rapidly, by a factor of eight, with 9-methylguanine than with 9-methyladenine, suggesting that the distribution of lesions formed on double-stranded DNA is kinetically controlled. In addition, implications for the potent anticancer activity of phenanthriplatin are discussed herein.

Three rationally designed glucose–platinum conjugates (Glc–Pts) were synthesized and their biological activities evaluated. The Glc–Pts, 1–3, exhibit high levels of cytotoxicity toward a panel of cancer cells. The subcellular target and cellular uptake mechanism of the Glc–Pts were elucidated. For uptake into cells, Glc–Pt 1 exploits both glucose and organic cation transporters, both widely overexpressed in cancer. Compound 1 preferentially accumulates in and annihilates cancer, compared to normal epithelial, cells in vitro.

Nitric oxide is released during the immune response by the host during bacterial infection. To counteract this response, bacteria have evolved nitric oxide reductases to convert NO to N₂O. Some of these nitric oxide reductases contain a flavodiiron active site that has bridging carboxylates and hydroxides. Only a handful of synthetic complexes currently exist as models for the protein reactivity. Here, we report the reaction of [Fe₂(μ-OH)(μ-Ph₄DBA)(TMEDA)₂(OTf)] (4) with NO(g) and Ph₃CSNO to prepare the dinitrosyl-triiron complex [Fe₃(μ-OH)₂(μ-Ph₄DBA)₂(TMEDA)₂(NO)₂](OTf) (5). The reaction was monitored by UV/Vis and ReactIR spectroscopy, and compound 5 was characterized by X-ray crystallography, ⁵⁷Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy, Evan's method, and FTIR spectroscopy. The IR spectrum of compound 5 compares favorably to experimental spectroscopic data obtained for the proposed mononitrosylated intermediate of the protein.

A reversible, reaction-based sensor for biological mobile zinc was designed, prepared, and characterized. The sensing mechanism of this probe is based on the zinc-induced, ring-opening reaction of spirobenzopyran to give a cyanine fluorophore that emits in the deep-red region of the electromagnetic spectrum. This probe is not activated by protons and operates efficiently in aqueous solution at pH 7 and high ionic strength. The mechanism of this reaction was studied by using a combination of kinetics experiments and DFT calculations. The biocompatibility of the probe was demonstrated in live HeLa cells.

A triptycene-based bis(benzimidazole) ester ligand, L3, was designed to enhance the electron-donating ability of the heterocyclic nitrogen atoms relative to those of the first-generation bis(benzoxazole) analogs, L1 and L2. A convergent synthesis of L3 was designed and executed. Three-component titration experiments using UV/Vis spectroscopy revealed that the desired diiron(II) complex could be obtained with a 1:2:1 ratio of L3/Fe(OTf)₂(MeCN)₂/external carboxylate reactants. X-ray crystallographic studies of two diiron complexes derived in this manner from L3 revealed their formulas to be [Fe₂L3(μ-OH)(μ-O₂CR)(OTf)₂], where R = 2,6-bis(p-tolyl)phenyl (7) or triphenylmethyl (8). The structures are similar to that of a diiron complex derived from L1, [Fe₂L1(μ-OH)(μ-O₂CAr^Tol)(OTf)₂] (9), a notable difference being that, in 7 and 8, the geometry at iron more closely resembles square-pyramidal than trigonal-bipyramidal. Mössbauer spectroscopic analyses of 7 and 8 indicate the presence of high-spin diiron(II) cores. These results demonstrate the importance of substituting benzimidazole for benzoxazole for assembling biomimetic diiron complexes with syn disposition of two N-donor ligands, as found in O₂-activating carboxylate-bridged diiron centers in biological systems.

Resistance of tumor cells to platinum anticancer agents poses a major problem in cancer chemotherapy. One of the mechanisms associated with platinum-based drug resistance is the enhanced capacity of the cell to carry out nucleotide excision repair (NER) on platinum-damaged DNA. Endonucleases XPF and XPG are critical components of NER, responsible for excising the damaged DNA strand to remove the DNA lesion. Here, we investigated possible consequences of down-regulation of XPF and XPG gene expression in osteosarcoma cancer cells (U2OS) and the impact on cellular transcription and DNA repair. We further evaluated the sensitivity of such cells toward the platinum anticancer drugs cisplatin and oxaliplatin.

In this study, diiron(II) complexes were synthesized as small molecule mimics of the reduced active sites in the hydroxylase components of bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases (BMMs). Tethered aromatic substrates were introduced in the form of 2-phenoxypyridines, incorporating hydroxy and methoxy functionalities into windmill-type diiron(II) compounds [Fe₂(μ-O₂CAr^R)₂(O₂CAr^R)₂(L)₂] (1–4), where^–O₂CAr^R is a sterically encumbering carboxylate, 2,6-bis(4-fluorophenyl)-, or 2,6-bis(p-tolyl)benzoate (R = 4-FPh or Tol, respectively). The inability of 1–4 to hydroxylate the aromatic substrates was ascertained. Upon reaction with dioxygen, compounds 2 and 3 (L = 2-(m-MeOPhO)Py, 2-(p-MeOPhO)Py, respectively) decompose by a known bimolecular pathway to form mixed-valent diiron(II,III) species at low temperature. Use of 2-(pyridin-2-yloxy)phenol as the ligand L resulted in a doubly bridged diiron complex 4 and an unprecedented phenoxide-bridged triiron(II) complex 5 under slightly modified reaction conditions. (© Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2009)

The activity of the anticancer drug cisplatin is a consequence of its ability to bind DNA. Platinum adducts bend and unwind the DNA duplex, creating recognition sites for nuclear proteins. Following DNA damage recognition, the lesions will either be repaired, facilitating cell viability, or if repair is unsuccessful and the Pt adduct interrupts vital cellular functions, apoptosis will follow. With the use of the benzophenone-modified cisplatin analogue Pt-BP6, 25 bp DNA duplexes containing either a 1,2-d(G*pG*) intrastrand or a 1,3-d(G*pTpG*) intrastrand crosslink were synthesized, where the asterisks designate platinated nucleobases. Proteins having affinity for these platinated DNAs were photocrosslinked and identified in cervical, testicular, pancreatic and bone cancer-cell nuclear extracts. Proteins identified in this manner include the DNA repair factors RPA1, Ku70, Ku80, Msh2, DNA ligase III, PARP-1, and DNA–PKcs, as well as HMG-domain proteins HMGB1, HMGB2, HMGB3, and UBF1. The latter strongly associate with the 1,2-d(G*pG*) adduct and weakly or not at all with the 1,3-d(G*pTpG*) adduct. The nucleotide excision repair protein RPA1 was photocrosslinked only by the probe containing a 1,3-d(G*pTpG*) intrastrand crosslink. The affinity of PARP-1 for platinum-modified DNA was established using this type of probe for the first time. To ensure that the proteins were not photocrosslinked because of an affinity for DNA ends, a 90-base dumbbell probe modified with Pt-BP6 was investigated. Photocrosslinking experiments with this longer probe revealed the same proteins, as well as some additional proteins involved in chromatin remodeling, transcription, or repair. These findings reveal a more complete list of proteins involved in the early steps of the mechanism of action of the cisplatin and its close analogue carboplatin than previously was available.

We report an efficient convergent synthesis of a new type of C-clamp ligand with a 1,2-diethynylarene scaffold involving a chelate host capable of binding a guest molecule in its endo-dicarboxylate pocket. The chemistry involves a combination of palladium-catalyzed Sonogashira, Heck, and Suzuki cross-coupling reactions. The compounds 2,3-bis[2-(2′-carboxybiphenyl-4-yl)ethynyl]triptycene and 4,5-bis[2-(2′-carboxybiphenyl-4-yl)ethynyl]veratrole and their 2′-carboxy-m-terphenyl-4-yl analogues were designed as dinucleating ligands to assemble carboxylate-bridged transition-metal complexes with a windmill geometry. The X-ray crystal structure of one such C-clamp compound containing co-crystallized water molecules reveals strong hydrogen bonds of the aqua guest to the endo-oriented carboxylic acid entities of the C-clamp host. In addition, two syn-N-donor ligands were prepared as a synthetic scaffold to mimic the geometric arrangement of N-donor atoms in carboxylate-bridged dinuclear proteins. (© Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2008)